L3 - Behavior and Attitudes

Attitude

Beliefs and feelings related to a person or an event (often rooted in one’s beliefs, and exhibited in one’s feelings and intended behavior.)

T or F: Our attitudes do predict our behavior when these other influences on what we say and do are minimal, when the attitude is specific to the behavior, and when the attitude is potent.

True

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people’s automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.

Amygdala

An area deep in the brain that is active when we automatically evaluate social stimuli.

Principle of Aggregation

The effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at a person’s aggregate or average behavior.

Theory of Planned Behavior

knowing people’s intended behaviors and their perceived self-efficacy and control. Several dozen experimental tests confirm that inducing new intentions induces new behavior.

Three conditions under which attitudes will predict behavior:

1. When we minimize other influences upon our attitude statements and on our behavior

2. When the attitude is specifically relevant to the observed behavior

3. An attitude predicts behavior better when the attitude is potent.

T or F: To change habits through persuasion, we must alter people’s attitudes toward specific practices.

True

Role

A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave. We enact this that shapes our attitudes.

Saying becomes believing

In expressing our thoughts to others, we sometimes tailor our words to what we think the others will want to hear, and then come to believe our own words.

Attitudes-follow-behavior principle

also works with immoral acts; evil sometimes results from gradually escalating commitments.

T or F: Harmful acts shape the self, but so, thankfully, do moral acts. Our character is reflected in what we do when we think no one is looking.

True

Self-presentation theory

assumes that for strategic reasons, we express attitudes that make us appear consistent.

ex. Smiling and agreeing with a new colleague to build rapport or a student praising a teacher's teaching style to get a better grades.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves. (occurs when there is a conflict between beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, leading to discomfort & a motivation to reduce the inconsistency.)

ex. Loving animals but eating meat creates dissonance, resolved by justifying meat as necessary, less humanizing animals, or avoiding thinking about it.

Self-perception theory

assumes that our actions are self-revealing; when uncertain about our feelings or beliefs, we look to our behavior, much as anyone else would.

ex. You order pasta every time you go out to a restaurant, leading you to believe, "I really love pasta!" even if you never consciously thought about it before.

Cognitive Dissonance

Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions; acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.

Selective Exposure

The tendency to seek information and media that agree with one’s view and to avoid dissonant information.

Ex. A voter who believes Candidate X is best will only read news sources praising X and ignore reports highlighting X's flaws or supporting Candidate Y.

Insufficient Justification

Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behavior when external justification is “insufficient.”

ex. people paid only $1 to lie about a boring task rated it as more enjoyable than those paid $20, because the $1 wasn't enough to justify lying, forcing them to change their belief (internal justification) that the task was fun

Dissonance theory

predicts that when our actions are not fully explained by external awards or coercion, we will experience this, which we can reduce by believing in what we have done.

Ex. Knowing it causes cancer, but continuing to smoke.

T or F: Dissonance theory insists that encouragement and inducement should be enough to elicit the desired action so that attitudes may follow the behavior.

True

T or F: Self-perception theory assumes that we make similar inferences when we observe our own behavior. When our attitudes are weak or ambiguous, it’s similar to someone observing us from the outside.

True

Facial Feedback Effect

The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

Insufficient Justification Effect

The smallest incentive that induces people to do something will most effectively get them to like it and keep on doing it.

Explained by Cognitive Dissonance Theory

When external inducements are insufficient to justify our behavior, we reduce dissonance internally by justifying the behavior.

Overjustification Effect

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

ex. A player who loves the game might find their passion wanes if they start playing solely for massive contracts, turning a hobby into a job.

Other definition of the Self-perception Theory

Assumption that we observe our behavior and make reasonable inferences about our attitudes, much as we observe other people and infer their attitudes.

Other definition of the Self-presentation Theory

One explanation of why our actions might only seem to affect our attitudes.

Other definition of the Dissonance Theory

assumption that we justify our behavior to reduce our internal discomfort

Self-affirmation Theory

a theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self.

Ex. A person failing a work task writes about their importance as a loving parent, shifting focus from job failure to family strength, reducing anxiety.

Self-affirming

Justifying our actions and decision, it protects and supports our sense of integrity and self-worth.