Plant Diversity

What is taxonomy used for?

Identifying Groups (Taxonomy)

Classification System (Systematics)

Naming things (Nomenclature)

How are things identified? (there are 7)

• morphology

• reproduction

• ecology

• physiology: metabolism

• evolutionary history

• geography: cosmopolitan or narrow range?

• population genetics

Builders: (type of taxonomist) what do they do?

defines groups; How are they related?

Devise Identification keys

Cataloging and manuals

Users: (Type of taxonomist) what do they do?

• identify out in the field

• What happens when something doesn’t fit the scheme?

  • expand key

  • define the thing

• Gets sent back to the builders to be revised

How do you format a species name?

it’s binomial (genus and species)

ex: Quercus alba L.

• alba = specific epithet

• L. = authority (Linnaeus)

• Quercus = genus

• Quercus alba = species

• italicize the whole thing, if not possible, then underline

What is the purpose of common names? What is the negative of using them?

easy to remember and pronounce.

common names are often different in various regions

What are the positives of using the scientific name?

• universal

• there can only be one (specific)

Marco Polo

Age of exploration

Newly discovered ladder of life

What is the ladder of life?

first concept of naming things based on the category they fall into

Concepts occurred in both Asia and Mediterranean

Gaspard Bauhin

first to try binomial naming

Family Concepts

Andrea Casalpino

John Ray

Pierre Magnol

• all looked at characteristics to create categories

Genera

Joseph Tournefort

Linnaeus and the structure of how he names things

• All plant names before Linnaeus had a genus with a Latin description following it

• Linnaeus simplified by taking the genus and adding a descriptive characteristic behind it

• ex: Lamium amplexicaule L.

Accomplishments of Linnaeus

• Linnea borealis

  • named a genus after himself even though he wasn’t supposed to

• systematic concept to organize plants

• sexual systems

Epithets

provides specific information about the plant

• alba: white

• lutea: yellow

• rubra: red

• virginea: pure white

• ii at the end: male

• ae at the end: female

• canadensis: from canad

What are the rules for nomenclature?

determined by the international botanical congress

• International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (every 4-5 years)

• Includes plants, algae, fungi and molds (even though fungi is more closely related to animals and algae are protists)

• tells you how to name something, not identify it

To name a species

• name cannot have been used before

What is a Holotype?

specimen designated by author when naming a new species

• must be publicly accessible

• holo means “in total”

syntype

copies of a holotype

isotypes

copies of holotypes sent to other herbaria

• helps to prevent loss in natural disasters/other events

• copies prevent holotype from being completely destroyed

lectotypes

a specimen from syntypes or isotypes designated by later author after holotype is destroyed

Neotype

newly designated holotype only if all the other ones are destroyed

Paratype

newly designated to “support” the other types

• go to closest geographical location where holotype was found to find something similar

Description/diagnosis

Latin or English: was all in Latin until the code was written when English became acceptable.

What is the date to know for Species Plantarum?

May 1, 1753, Birthdate of binomial names; if Linnaeus didn’t put a name in his book, then it is still available.

Valid construction/publication:

must be latinized

effective publication:

must be published and dispersed

• typically published in journals but can be in a newsletter

Nomenclature Synonym:

same type specimen but change in concepts (one specimen but referred to with multiple scientific names) (≡)

Taxonomic synonym:

different types but concept is same species (2 separate things) (=)

Note!

synonyms are supposed to be stable, once named, it will stay. Concepts may change

herbarium

collection of preserved plants, algal, and fungal material housed in a publicly accessible place

• label is always on the bottom left side

• plants should take up the entirety of the page

Linnaeus Classification System

Artificial Naming (Artificial System)

• emphasized numbers of flowering parts

• based on shared characteristics

Bernard and Antoine Laurent de Jussieu

French Botanists

• Bernard: natural system, not just numbers

• Antoine: Published his uncle’s system (15 classes and 100 orders) modern families

Designed their gardens based on their “natural system”

modern families are based on their work

Augustin and Alphonse de Candolle (French Swiss Botanist)

Prodromas Systemes (Very complex system with LOTS of new names)

Engler and Prants

developed more natural plant families

• linear scheme (some herbaria use thus as a naming system

• published in 1897

• goes from primitive to advanced

  •  Cryptogam → gymosperms → Angiosperms

Charles Bessey

paddle gram (looks like a cactus)

dicta of primitive

1. Free (no fusion)

2. Equal (no size difference in whorl)

3. Spiral (arrangement of parts)

4. superior (ovary)

5. Radical (Symmetry)

6. numerous (lots of parts)

Cronquist and Taktajhan

Bessey’s paddle gram in 3D

classes in bubbles; represent evolutionary tree cross section

the closer together the bubbles are, the more likely they are to be related

Caryophallales

some members have betalains (pink)

secondary metabolites

Flavonoids, terpenoids

• Analyzed through HPLC

  • High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

endosymbiotic theory

happened at birth of all prokaryotes

Karyotyping

counting number of chromosomes

Aneuploidy:

1 or 2 different chromosomes

Euploidal changes

results in polyploidy

Autotetraploid

doubling of itself (AA →AAAA)

Allotetraploid

different parents (AB → AABB)

Isozymes

different genes produce same enzymes

Allozymes

same gene but seeing allelic differences

Starch or polyacrylamide gels

shows allelic variations

used for population analysis

Primers

restriction enzymes → DNA destroyers → named for the bacteria they came from

restriction enzymes

go down a sequence and find a DNA strand to cut up (often palyndromic)

PCR-RFLP

Restriction Fragment length polymorphism

• multiple primers can be added

• No fragment doesn’t mean it’s not there

quick and easy way to look at closely related species

chemical analysis

HPLC analysis of Flavonoids

• anthocyanin vs Betalain

Euploids

complete duplication

• typically, unreduced spores or gametes

Anueploids

one or two extra or less than normal chromosome numbers

RAPD and AFLP

Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA

not useful ways to look at DNA anymore

VNTR

microsatellites

Variable number tandem repeat

can be population and/or species level

Sequencing DNA (Phylogeny)

Conserved Genes

RBCL → Rubisco

tRNA: carries amino acids

• if tRNA is messed with, it won’t fold properly

Non conserved genes

• intergenic: INTRONS (random extra bullshit): noncoding can have lots of mutations

• the third base of a codon can change (more moderate center of graph)

• some amino acids can change (moderate)

• gene duplication

LOOK AT GRAPH IN NOTES