AP Psychology - unit 7

memory: What are the 3 memory processes?

1. encoding

2. storage

3. retrieval

memory: what is encoding? what are the three types?

• encoding is accomplished by the transformation of info so the nervous system can process it

1. acoustic: repetition audibly

2. visual: visual encoding (movement, shape, size)

3. semantic: making sense of what you are trying to remember

memory: what is storage?

• is the process by which we remember material over a period of time

memory: what is retrieval?

the process of obtaining information from storage

memory: what is memory retrieval?

the process of accessing stored information and making it avaible to our consciousness

memory: what are the memory stages?

• sensory memory

• STM memory

• LTM memory

memory: what is sensory memory?

storage system that holds memory of sensory impression

memory: what is STM?

allows for the brief retention of newly required information (30 secs)

memory: what is LTM? what are the 4 catagories?

the storage of information over an extended time

1. semantic memory: general knowledge, language, including its words and meanings (not imprinted), ex, the definition of a word (no personal experiences)

2. episodic memory: a personal diary (COVID)

3. declarative memory(explicit): images/ideas to tap back to rehearsal; This is memory for facts and events that you can consciously "declare" or state. ex: your birthday

4. procedural memory: memory of learned skills

memory: what is chunking?

the process of breaking down large amounts of information into smaller chunks

memory: what is maintenance rehearsal?

a system for which involve repeating information to oneself without looking for any underlying meaning

memory: what is the primacy-recency effect?

we can best remember or recall information at the beginning → end of a list

memory: what is retrospective vs. prospective memory?

retro: occurs when new learning disrupts recall of old information

Pro: occurs when prior learning disrupts your recall of new information.

memory: what is muscle memory?

relying on muscles to preform complex motor skills

memory: what are flashbulb memories? (ANDERSON AND CONWAY)

• evoke LT memories; permanently seared into the brain

• what were you doing when…?

memory: what is an eyewitness testimony?

• can be flawed

• misinformation effect

• ex: Trayvon Martin

memory: What are schemas?

conceptual frameworks that a person uses to make sense of the world (sets of expectations) → these can be adaptable as our framework changes over time

biology of memory: How and where memories are stored in the brain?

• the striatum ( deep in the frontal cortex)

• the hippocampus and amygdala

biology of memory: what is the basis for memory?

• The human brain has billions of neurons and trillions of synapses

• How to track down specific networks of cells where memories are stored (glucose and potassium)

• Aplysia: a sea snail → very similar to a human being

biology of memory: who was Erik Kandel?

• a molecular biologist/Nobel prize winner

• experiments with sea snails

• neurotransmitter released into the synapse

biology of memory: forgetting

• decay

• memory loss → (absence of maintenance rehearsal)

• interference → (when new/previous memories block memories)

• STM LEAVES FIRST

biology of memory: amnesia; what are the 2 types?

• Often caused by a traumatic injury to the brain, such as a concussion

• retrograde amnesia (past events)

• anterograde amnesia (you can’t form new long-term memories but you remember past ones)

biology of memory: childhood amnesia

• a normal phase of development that accounts for the lack of memory before the ages of 3 and 4

Thinking and problem solving: thinking

• changing and reorganizing information stored in the memory

• creates new information

• thinking = mental representation and manipulation of material

Thinking and problem solving: mental images (what are the 4 points)

1. image: a mental visualization of an object or experience

2. symbol: something that stands for or represents a specific object or event

3. abstraction: an idea unrelated to a specific object or event

4. Concept: a mental category for classifying people, things, or events.

Thinking and problem solving: conceptual thinking

• prototype: a representation of a concept (animal → dog → lab)

• rule: a statement about relationships between concepts

Thinking and problem solving: mental rotation

• the ability to hold and manipulate mental images. This helps us with many cognitive task

• mental imaging can spark creativity

Thinking and problem solving: direct/convergent thinking

• using logic to solve a problem; logical thinking

• relies on the use of symbols, concepts, and rules

Thinking and problem solving: non directed/divergent thinking

• free flowing consciousness that doesn’t use specific steps to solve a problem

Thinking and problem solving: insight

• based on passed experiences which provides insight

Thinking and problem solving: strategies for problem solving (2 strats)

• algorithm: a step-by-step technique used to solve a problem (pro: right answer ; con: too time-consuming)

• heuristic: a “rule of thumb” problem-solving technique (shortcut)

• Ex: algorithm would be doing homework on your own; heuristic would be using ai to complete it instead.

Thinking and problem solving: what are the 2 obstacles in problem solving?

• mental set

• functional fixedness (seeing objects to only have ONE usage)

→ these lead to rigidity of thought

Thinking and problem solving: how is rigidity overcome?

• when an individual is forced to look for a new solution

• when we realize our certain process is not working for the current situation

Thinking and problem solving: creativity

• the ability to use information in new and original ways

• all problem solving requites creativity

• creativity includes flexibility

• recombination (vital part of creativity) → forms insight

Language: early language aquisition

• reading (most important) doing this on a frequent basis based on what a persons motive/ interests are is crucial

• people who are consistent readers are better prepared for life skills as the grow older.

Language structure: what are the four rules of language?

1. phonemes: individual sounds that are basic structural elements of language (consants and vowels)

2. Morphemes: The smallest unit of meaning in a given language → these are composed of one or more phonemes: a word, a letter, or even a suffix.

3. syntax: language rules that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences

4. semantics: meaning in language, the same word can have different feelings

Language: what is the difference between phonemes and morphemes?

• phonemes are units of sound, morphemes are units of meaning

• ex: cat → bat (phonemes)

• ex: sure → unsure (morphemes)

Language: How do children learn language?

• they understand before they start speaking

• children learn from observation

• ^ this behavior is reinforced with smiles and attention

Language: who is noam chomsky?

• a mental program

• LAD

• infants posses an innate capacity for language

Language: what are the 7 stages of language development?

1. birth: crying, distressed

2. 2 months: cooing

3. 4 months: babbling (1st stage of language development)

4. 9 months: Babbling is refined

5. Year 1: single words are uttered

6. year 2: two words together (encoding begins)

7. year 4+: complete sentences