HISTORY TERMS: Humanities Semester Exam

by Veda Venkat

Neolithic Revolution

• A major transformation in human history, occurring around 10,000 BCE.

• Marked the shift from hunter-gatherer societies to settled farming communities.

• Enabled the domestication of plants and animals, leading to stable food sources.

• Resulted in permanent settlements, population growth, and the formation of early cities and civilizations.

Bantu & Migration

• Refers to the movements of Bantu-speaking peoples across sub-Saharan Africa.

• Began around 1000 BCE and continued for centuries.

• Spread agricultural practices, ironworking technology, and language across vast regions.

• Influenced the cultural, social, and linguistic makeup of Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa.

Hammurabi

• The sixth ruler of the First Babylonian Dynasty, ruling from c. 1792–1750 BCE.

• Known for establishing one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes.

• The code emphasized justice, with laws covering commerce, family, and criminal justice.

• Set the foundation for later legal systems in the ancient world.

Hebrews

• A group of ancient people who settled in the region known today as Israel and Palestine.

• Their history is closely linked to religious traditions, particularly Judaism.

• Known for their covenant relationship with their God, Yahweh.

• Their religious texts (the Torah) laid the groundwork for the Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, Islam).

Monotheism

• The belief in a single, all-powerful deity.

• Became prominent with the development of certain ancient religions like Judaism.

• Contrasted with polytheism, which acknowledges multiple gods.

• Played a foundational role in shaping religious practices and philosophies in the Western and Middle Eastern worlds.

Shi Huangdi

• The first emperor of China, ruling from 221–210 BCE during the Qin Dynasty.

• Known for unifying China under one centralized state.

• Standardized laws, currency, weights, and measures.

• Also initiated massive infrastructure projects, including parts of the Great Wall of China.

Mandate of Heaven

• A political and religious doctrine used in ancient China.

• Claimed that emperors were chosen by divine will and had the right to rule as long as they governed justly.

• If a ruler became corrupt or failed, they would lose the Mandate, and a new ruler would be chosen.

• It provided legitimacy to dynastic changes and rebellions.

Chinese Dynsatic Cycle

• Refers to the rise, flourishing, and decline of dynasties in China.

• Each dynasty begins with the establishment of a new ruler or family, often under the Mandate of Heaven.

• Over time, corruption and failure to address internal issues lead to a dynasty’s downfall.

• The cycle repeats as new rulers emerge to restore order.

Confucianism

• A philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius (551–479 BCE).

• Emphasizes moral integrity, respect for tradition, and the importance of family.

• Advocates for good governance, social harmony, and personal development.

• Played a central role in shaping Chinese society and its bureaucratic systems.

Confucius

• A Chinese philosopher and educator who lived during the Spring and Autumn period (551–479 BCE).

• Focused on creating a moral society by emphasizing virtues like filial piety, respect, and proper behavior.

• His teachings became the foundation of Confucianism, deeply influencing Chinese culture, governance, and education.

Legalism

• A political philosophy in ancient China that emphasized strict laws and harsh punishments.

• Focused on central authority and control to maintain order and prevent chaos.

• Popularized by thinkers like Han Fei during the Qin Dynasty.

• Contrasted with Confucianism, which focused more on moral virtue.

Daoism

• A philosophical and religious tradition that emerged in China around the 4th century BCE.

• Emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, or "the Way," an unseen force that flows through all life.

• Advocates for simplicity, naturalness, and non-action (wu wei).

• Influenced Chinese medicine, art, and politics.

Laozi

• An ancient Chinese philosopher, traditionally considered the founder of Daoism.

• Best known for authoring the Tao Te Ching, a text that outlines the principles of Daoism.

• Advocated for living in accordance with the Tao, emphasizing balance and harmony in life.

Ancestor Worship

• The practice of venerating deceased family members as a way to ensure their spirits bring protection and favor.

• Common in many ancient cultures, particularly in China, Africa, and parts of Southeast Asia.

• Involves rituals, offerings, and ceremonies to honor ancestors and maintain familial connections.

Hinduism

• One of the oldest major world religions, originating in India.

• A complex, polytheistic religion with no single founder. (Has several monotheistic elements though like brahma… some debate if its monotheistic or polytheistic)

• Emphasizes concepts like dharma (duty), karma (actions), and moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth).

• The belief in a Supreme Being manifests in many gods, including Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

Caste System

• A social stratification system in India

• Divides society into rigid hierarchical groups (varnas), often based on birth.

• Determines an individual’s occupation, social status, and even marriage possibilities.

Siddhartha Gautama

• The historical figure known as the Buddha, born around 563 BCE in India.

• Founded Buddhism after attaining enlightenment under the Bodhi tree.

• Taught that suffering arises from desire and that it can be overcome by following the Eightfold Path to reach Nirvana.

Bhuddism

• A religion and philosophy founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th-4th century BCE.

• Emphasizes the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a way to end suffering and attain enlightenment (Nirvana).

• DID NOT ORIGINATE IN CHINA- it came from south asia

• Focuses on meditation, ethical conduct, and wisdom.

Ashoka

• The third emperor of the Maurya Dynasty in India, who ruled from c. 268–232 BCE.

• Initially a brutal ruler, he converted to Buddhism after the bloody Kalinga War.

• Promoted the principles of non-violence, tolerance, and respect for all life.

• His edicts spread throughout India, advocating for ethical governance and religious tolerance.

Polis

• A term referring to a city-state in ancient Greece.

• Each polis was an independent entity, with its own government, laws, and customs.

• Famous examples include Athens, Sparta, and Corinth.

• The concept of the polis was central to Greek identity and political life.

Democracy

• A form of government where power lies in the hands of the people, either directly or through elected representatives.

• Originated in Athens around the 5th century BCE.

• Key features include equal participation in politics, the rule of law, and protection of rights.

Augustus Ceasar

• The first emperor of Rome, ruling from 27 BCE to 14 CE.

• Transformed Rome from a republic to an empire after the fall of the Roman Republic.

• His reign began the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), a long period of stability and prosperity in the empire.

Romanization

• The spread of Roman culture, language, and citizenship throughout the Roman Empire.

• Included the construction of Roman infrastructure, the spread of Latin, and the adoption of Roman customs.

• Helped unify diverse peoples within the empire.

Jesus

• A central figure in Christianity, believed by Christians to be the Son of God.

• Born in Judea (modern-day Israel/Palestine) around 4 BCE.

• His teachings of love, forgiveness, and salvation formed the basis of Christianity.

• Crucified around 30 CE, his followers believed he was resurrected.

Christianity

• A monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.

• Emphasizes salvation through faith in Jesus Christ and the belief in eternal life.

• Became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire after Emperor Constantine’s conversion in the 4th century CE.

Muhammad

• The founder of Islam, born in Mecca in 570 CE.

• Regarded by Muslims as the final prophet, who received revelations from God (Allah) through the angel Gabriel.

• His teachings are recorded in the Quran, the holy book of Islam.

• Unified the Arabian Peninsula under Islam.

Islam

• A monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad in the 7th century CE.

• Followers, called Muslims, believe in one God (Allah) and follow the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of Muhammad).

• Islam emphasizes submission to God’s will and living a moral, just life.

Sunni

• One of the two main branches of Islam, representing the majority of Muslims.

• Sunnis believe the leader of the Muslim community (the caliph) should be chosen by consensus rather than being a descendant of Muhammad.

Shi’ite

• The second major branch of Islam, representing a minority of Muslims.

• Shi’ites believe leadership should stay within the family of Muhammad, specifically his cousin and son-in-law Ali.

Sufi

• A mystical and ascetic branch of Islam focused on personal experience with God.

• Emphasizes meditation, prayer, and devotion to achieve spiritual closeness with Allah.

• Known for their poetry, music (like the whirling dervishes), and exploration of divine love.

Cultural Borrowing

• The process through which one culture adopts or adapts elements from another culture.

• It can include language, religion, customs, art, or technological innovations.

• Played a significant role in the spread of ideas and technologies, especially in ancient trade routes like the Silk Road.

Feudalism

• A political and economic system prevalent in medieval Europe and Japan.

• Society was organized around land ownership and reciprocal relationships between lords, vassals, and serfs.

• Lords granted land to vassals in exchange for military service or loyalty.

Justinians Code

• A collection of laws and legal interpretations created under the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (527–565 CE).

• It standardized laws across the Byzantine Empire and became the foundation for later European legal systems.

• Also known as the "Corpus Juris Civilis," it consolidated Roman legal thought and practice.

Hadrian’s Wall

was constructed by the Romans in Britain around 122 AD during Emperor Hadrian's reign. Its primary purpose was to mark the northern boundary of the Roman Empire, protect Roman Britain from raids by northern tribes (like the Picts), and control trade and movement across the border.

Olmec Heads

large stone sculptures created by the Olmec civilization (1200-400 BCE), suggest that the Olmecs were highly skilled and influential in Mesoamerica. These heads may represent rulers and indicate that the Olmecs had significant cultural and trade interactions with neighboring regions, potentially influencing later civilizations like the Maya and Aztec.

Pillars of Ashoka

by Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire (3rd century BCE) to promote the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism. The inscriptions on these pillars conveyed Ashoka's edicts, encouraging nonviolence, religious tolerance, and welfare for all beings, and helped spread Buddhist principles across India.

The Venus of Willendorf

a prehistoric figurine (around 28,000–25,000 BCE) believed to symbolize fertility, womanhood, and perhaps a goddess of reproduction. The exaggerated features of the figurine, like large breasts and hips, suggest that it was used in rituals or as a symbol of fertility in Paleolithic societies.

Minarets

are tall towers typically found at mosques in Islamic architecture. They serve to call Muslims to prayer (adhan), but also act as architectural symbols of Islamic presence. Their height and visibility make them prominent landmarks in Islamic communities.

Emperor Justinian

ruler of the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century, is famous for his legal reforms, known as the Corpus Juris Civilis or Justinian’s Code. The Code consolidated and clarified Roman laws. It also included reforms that improved the status of women, granting them rights to own property, inherit wealth, and initiate divorce in certain circumstances, although they were still largely under patriarchal authority.

What Geographical Features Were Necessary for an Early Civilization to Develop?

Early civilizations typically developed near river valleys such as the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, and Yellow River (Huang He) because these areas offered fertile soil for agriculture, access to water for drinking and irrigation, and a means of transportation and trade.

Roman Empire and Han Dynasty

Both the _____ Empire and the ______ Dynasty were expansive, centralized empires with strong military, advanced engineering, and vast trade networks. Their downfalls were caused by similar factors, including political corruption, economic strain, overextension, and internal instability. The Roman Empire fell due to barbarian invasions and civil conflict, while the Han Dynasty fell to internal rebellions and weak leadership

Persian Empire and Religious Tolerance

The _______, particularly under rulers like Cyrus the Great, is known for its policy of ______. The Persians allowed conquered peoples to practice their own religions and cultures, which helped maintain peace and stability in their vast, diverse empire. This approach contrasted with many other empires that imposed a state religion.

Bantu Migration and Sub-Saharan Africa

________, which occurred over several centuries, spread language, agricultural techniques, and ironworking technology across much of ________. It significantly influenced the development of cultures, societies, and trade networks in central, eastern, and southern Africa.

Monsoon Winds and Post-Classical Era

______ played a crucial role in trade across the Indian Ocean during the _______. Traders took advantage of the predictable seasonal winds to sail across the ocean, facilitating trade between East Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India, and Southeast Asia. This led to increased cultural exchange, the spread of goods, and the rise of powerful trading empires.

Feudalism

_______was the dominant social and political system in medieval Europe, where lords controlled land and peasants worked it in exchange for protection. The system contributed to the decline of the Middle Ages by fostering localism, weakening centralized power, and contributing to internal conflicts. The Black Death, economic troubles, and the rise of powerful monarchies also played roles in its downfall.

Mauryan Empire and Gupta Empire

The _______, particularly under Emperor Ashoka, played a significant role in spreading Buddhism both within India and abroad. Ashoka promoted Buddhism through edicts and missions to other regions. The ______ (around 320-550 CE) is known for its achievements in science, mathematics, art, and literature. It also saw the flowering of Hindu culture and religious practice.

Mali Empire

The _______ was known for trading gold, salt, and other commodities across the trans-Saharan trade routes. It became wealthy from these trades, especially during the reign of Mansa Musa, who made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca. The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) was an Islamic empire in India, and while it also engaged in trade, it was more known for its military conquests and the spread of Islam rather than trade wealth.

The Terracotta Warriors

The Terracotta Warriors are an army of life-sized sculptures found in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, dating to around 210 BCE. These warriors were created to protect the emperor in the afterlife, and they provide valuable insights into ancient Chinese military practices, art, and craftsmanship.

Delhi Sultanate

• ruled over india subcontinent

• islamic faith

• muslim rulers ruling over majority Hindu population

• in charge but still a minority