Developmental Stages and Influences

Development

- Process of growth, change, and maturation that occurs over the lifespan.
- Involves physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes.
- Shaped by genetic, biological, environmental, and experiential factors.
- Occurs in stages and is influenced by individual differences.

Prenatal period

- Time from conception to birth.
- Critical period of development for the embryo and fetus.
- Divided into three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

Zygote

- Single-cell formed by the fusion of sperm and egg during fertilization.
- Contains the full complement of genetic material from both parents.
- Undergoes rapid cell division and differentiation to form an embryo.

Germinal stage

- First stage of prenatal development, lasting about 2 weeks.
- Includes conception, fertilization, and implantation of the zygote into the uterine wall.
- Rapid cell division and formation of the blastocyst occur during this stage.

Placenta

- Organ that develops during pregnancy.
- Provides oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to the fetus.
- Removes waste products from the fetal bloodstream.

Embryonic stage

- Second stage of prenatal development, from weeks 3 to 8.
- Characterized by rapid growth and development of major organs and structures.
- Critical period for organogenesis, when organs and systems begin to form.

Fetal stage

- Third stage of prenatal development, from week 9 until birth.
- Characterized by further growth and development of organs and systems.
- Fetus becomes more physically recognizable as human features develop.

Teratogens

- Substances or environmental factors that can disrupt development and cause birth defects.
- Include drugs, alcohol, tobacco, medications, chemicals, and infections.
- Effects depend on timing, dosage, and individual susceptibility.

Age of viability

- Point in pregnancy when the fetus can survive outside the womb with medical intervention.
- Typically around 24 weeks gestation.
- Depends on the development of vital organs and systems.

Fetal alcohol syndrome

- Developmental disorder caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy.
- Results in physical, cognitive, and behavioral abnormalities in the child.
- Symptoms include facial abnormalities, growth retardation, and intellectual disabilities.

Motor development - Gross and Fine Motor Skills

- Gross motor skills involve large muscle movements (e.g., crawling, walking).
- Fine motor skills involve smaller muscle movements (e.g., grasping, writing).
- Develop progressively from infancy through childhood.

Cephalocaudal trend

- Developmental pattern where growth and motor control proceed from head to toe.
- Infants gain control over head and neck before mastering control over limbs.

Proximodistal trend

- Developmental pattern where growth and motor control proceed from the center of the body outward.
- Infants gain control over the torso and trunk before mastering control over the extremities.

Maturation

- Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.
- Influences motor skills, cognitive abilities, and emotional development.
- Occurs regardless of environmental influences but can be influenced by experience.

Developmental Norms

- Typical ages or stages at which specific developmental milestones are reached.
- Serve as benchmarks for assessing developmental progress.
- Can vary across cultures and individual differences.

Reflexes

- Involuntary responses to stimuli.
- Present from birth and serve protective or survival functions.
- Examples include rooting, sucking, grasping, and Moro reflexes.

Rooting Reflex

What it does: Helps babies find food.
How it works: When a baby's cheek is touched, they turn their head and open their mouth.
When it fades: Usually gone by about 4 months old.

Sucking Reflex

What it does: Helps babies drink milk.
How it works: When something touches their lips, babies start sucking.
When it fades: Stays strong as babies grow.

Grasping Reflex

What it does: Makes babies grab things.
How it works: If you put something in a baby's hand, they'll grip it.
When it fades: Starts going away at about 5-6 months.

Moro Reflex

What it does: Makes babies react to sudden movements or noises.
How it works: If they're startled, babies throw their arms out and then bring them back.
When it fades: Usually disappears by around 4-6 months old.

Imprinting

- Rapid and relatively permanent type of learning.
- Occurs during a critical period and involves attachment to a specific object or figure.
- Often observed in animals, particularly birds and mammals.

Temperament

- Innate behavioral and emotional tendencies.
- Types include easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.
- Influence how individuals respond to and interact with the environment.

Easy Temperament

Happy, calm, and adaptable.
Like routines and new experiences.
Easy to soothe when upset.

Longitudinal study

- Research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period of time.
- Allows for the examination of developmental changes over time.
- Provides insights into stability and change in behavior and development.

Cross-Sectional study

- Research method that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time.
- Provides insight into age-related differences in development.
- Faster and less expensive than longitudinal studies but cannot assess individual change over time.

Attachment

- Emotional bond between an infant and primary caregiver.
- Influences social and emotional development.
- Forms the basis for future relationships and social interactions.

Harry Harlow's research on attachment

- Conducted studies with rhesus monkeys to investigate the importance of contact comfort in attachment.
- Demonstrated that infants prefer comfort and security over food when provided with a surrogate mother.

Cohort Effects

- Differences between age groups that are the result of environmental influences unique to those groups.
- Reflects the impact of historical events, cultural shifts, and social changes on development.

Separation anxiety

- Distress that occurs when a child is separated from their primary caregiver.
- Peaks around 6-8 months of age and gradually diminishes with age and increasing independence.

Secure attachment

- Attachment style characterized by trust, comfort, and security in the presence of the caregiver.
- Formed through consistent and responsive caregiving during infancy.

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure

- Laboratory procedure used to assess attachment styles in infants.
- Involves a series of separations and reunions between the infant and caregiver to observe attachment behaviors.

Anxious-Ambivalent attachment

- Attachment style characterized by anxiety and insecurity in the presence of the caregiver.
- Infants may be clingy and difficult to soothe, alternating between seeking and rejecting caregiver contact.

Avoidant attachment

- Attachment style characterized by avoidance of the caregiver and emotional distance.
- Infants may avoid contact or interaction with the caregiver and show little distress upon separation.

Disorganized-Disoriented attachment

- Attachment style characterized by inconsistent and confused behavior toward the caregiver.
- Infants may display contradictory behaviors, such as seeking comfort while avoiding the caregiver.

Stage Theory

Proposal that individuals progress through a series of stages in a fixed order, each characterized by distinct tasks and achievements.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

- Describes how children actively construct their understanding of the world through assimilation and accommodation.
- Divides cognitive development into four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (know all stages)

- Theory of psychosocial development across the lifespan, emphasizing the importance of resolving crises at each stage.
- Divides development into eight stages, each associated with a psychosocial conflict or challenge.

Continuous v. Discontinuous development

- Continuous development involves gradual and incremental changes.
- Discontinuous development involves distinct stages or steps.

Sensorimotor period

- Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, is characterized by learning through sensory experiences and motor actions.
- Infants develop object permanence and basic understanding of cause and effect during this stage.

Object permanence

- Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
- Acquired during the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.
-Water moved to a cup that is a different size contains the same amount of water

Preoperational period

- Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
- Children develop language and representational thought but need help with conservation and logical reasoning.

Conservation

- Understanding that certain properties of objects remain constant despite changes in appearance.
- Piagetian concept mastered during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.

Centration

- Piagetian concept referring to the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation and ignore others.
- Common in preoperational children and contributes to egocentrism.

Irreversibility

- Inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or actions.
- Piagetian concept observed in preoperational children's thinking.

Difficult Temperament

Fussy, irritable, and intense.
Dislike change and may be hard to comfort.
React strongly to new things.

Slow-to-Warm-Up Temperament

Shy and cautious at first.
Take time to get used to new situations.
Once comfortable, can be friendly and cooperative.

Infancy (Birth to 18 months): Trust vs. Mistrust

- Babies learn to trust caregivers who meet their needs.
- If caregivers are inconsistent, babies may feel insecure.

Early Childhood (18 months to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame

- Toddlers assert independence by making choices.
- Overly strict parents can make them feel ashamed of their actions.

Preschool (3-5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

- Children begin to take initiative in play and social interactions.
- Criticism can make them feel guilty about their efforts.

School age (6-12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority

- Kids develop competence in school and social activities.
- Failure can lead to feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion

- Teens explore their identity and beliefs.
- Confusion arises if they struggle to define themselves.

Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation

- Adults seek close relationships and intimacy.
- Fear of rejection can lead to isolation.

Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation

- Adults focus on contributing to society and family.
- Feelings of stagnation occur if they feel unproductive.

Late Adulthood (65 years and older): Ego Integrity vs. Despair

- Older adults reflect on their lives.
- They may feel satisfied or regretful about their choices and achievements.

Egocentrism

- Difficulty seeing things from another person's perspective.
- Common in young children, according to Piaget.

Animism

- Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and intentions.
- Typical of preoperational children's thinking.

Accommodation & Assimilation

- Processes by which individuals adapt to new information.
- Assimilation involves incorporating new information into existing schemas.
- Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas to fit new information.

Schema

-A mental framework or blueprint.
-Helps organize and understand information.
-Developed through experience and learning.

1. How Schemas Work:
-They categorize and interpret new information.
-Guide how we perceive and remember things.
-Influence how we think and solve problems.
-Change over time

2. Examples of Schemas:
-Simple concepts like "dog" or "tree."
-Complex ideas like "friendship" or "success."

3. Importance of Schemas:
-Speed up understanding of new information.
-Help make sense of the world around us.
-Impact how we learn, remember, and solve problems.

Concrete operational period

- Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, is characterized by logical thinking and an understanding of conservation.
- Children can think logically about concrete objects and events but struggle with abstract or hypothetical thinking.

Formal operational period

- Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, characterized by abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.
- Adolescents and adults can think logically about abstract concepts and hypothetical situations.

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

- Emphasizes the role of culture and social interaction in cognitive development.
- Highlights the importance of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development.
-The three zones are "I can do it by myself, I can do it with some help (proximal), and I can't do it even with help"

Lawrence Kohlberg's moral development theory

- Describes stages of moral reasoning, ranging from preconventional to postconventional morality.
- Moral reasoning evolves through interactions with the social environment and moral dilemmas.
-Kohlberg's theory suggests that individuals progress through these stages sequentially, with each stage building upon the previous one.

Preconventional

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation:
-Children obey rules to avoid punishment.
-Moral reasoning is focused on self-interest and avoiding -negative consequences.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange:
-Children recognize that there is not just one right view.
-Moral decisions are based on self-interest and personal gain.
-Begin to understand reciprocity and fairness.

Conventional

Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships:
-Individuals seek approval from others and conform to societal norms.
-Moral decisions are based on maintaining relationships and being perceived as a good person.

Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order:
-Emphasis on following laws, rules, and societal expectations.
-Concern for upholding social order and doing one's duty.

Postconventional

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights:
-Individuals recognize that rules and laws are social contracts.
-Moral decisions are based on principles of justice, equality, and individual rights.
-Willingness to challenge unjust laws for the greater good.

Stage 6: Universal Principles:
-Rarely achieved; represents the highest level of moral reasoning.
-Based on abstract principles of justice, equality, and human dignity.
-Actions guided by self-chosen ethical principles that are universal and apply to all.

Carol Gilligan's care orientation

- Alternative perspective on moral development, emphasizing the importance of caring relationships.
- Critiques Kohlberg's theory for its focus on justice and autonomy over caring and relationships.

Pubescence

- Period of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation during adolescence.
- Includes the development of secondary sex characteristics and the onset of puberty.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

- Physical features that develop during puberty and distinguish males from females, other than the reproductive organs themselves.
- Include changes in body shape, hair growth, and voice pitch.

Puberty

- Period of physical and sexual maturation during which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction.
- Involves hormonal changes, growth spurts, and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Primary sex characteristics

- Physical features present at birth that are directly involved in sexual reproduction.
- Include the reproductive organs themselves (e.g., ovaries, testes) and related structures (e.g., uterus, penis).

Menarche

- Onset of menstruation in females.
- Typically occurs around age 12-13 but can vary widely.
- Marks the beginning of reproductive capability in females.

Spermarche

- Onset of sperm production and ejaculation in males.
- Typically occurs around puberty, usually between ages 12-16.

Prefrontal cortex in adolescence

- The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain responsible for executive functions such as decision-making, impulse control, and planning.
- During adolescence, the prefrontal cortex undergoes significant development and maturation.
- This development is associated with improvements in reasoning, judgment, and self-regulation.

James Marcia's identity statuses

Four identity statuses based on exploration and commitment in adolescence: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement.

Identity Diffusion

Description: Not sure about who they are or what they want.
Characteristics: Feel lost, don't have a clear direction, avoid making decisions.

Identity Foreclosure

Description: Adopt beliefs without thinking about other options.
Characteristics: Follow what others say without questioning, don't explore different ideas.

Moratorium

Description: Exploring different options but haven't decided yet.
Characteristics: Trying out different things, feeling uncertain, searching for answers.

Identity Achievement

Description: Figured out who they are and what they want.
Characteristics: Have a clear sense of self, confident in their choices, committed to their beliefs.

Empty nest

- Stage in the family life cycle when children have grown and left the parental home.
- Parents may experience feelings of loss, freedom, or a combination of both.

Midlife crisis

- Period of self-doubt and reevaluation that may occur in middle adulthood, typically between ages 40-60.
- Often associated with questioning life choices and pursuing new goals or interests.

Menopause

- Natural process marking the end of menstruation and reproductive capacity in women.
- Typically occurs around age 45-55.
- Accompanied by hormonal changes and symptoms such as hot flashes and mood swings.

Dementia

- General term for a decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily life.
- Symptoms may include memory loss, confusion, and difficulties with language or problem-solving.
- Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia.

Fluid Intelligence

- Ability to think abstractly, reason, and solve novel problems.
- Peaks in early adulthood and tends to decline with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

- Accumulated knowledge and skills acquired over a lifetime.
- Continues to increase with age and remains relatively stable or may even improve in older adulthood. (wisdom)

Parenting Styles: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive

- Authoritarian: Strict rules and high demands with little warmth or responsiveness.
- Authoritative: Clear rules and expectations with warmth, responsiveness, and open communication.
- Permissive: Few rules or demands with high warmth and responsiveness, often indulgent.

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross' Stages of Accepting Death

- Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.
- Proposed stages that individuals may go through when facing their own death or the death of a loved one.

Gender differences

- Biological and psychological distinctions between males and females.
- Can include physical, cognitive, and behavioral variations.

Gender stereotypes

Generalized beliefs or expectations about characteristics, traits, and roles associated with masculinity and femininity.

Gender roles

- Socially constructed expectations and behaviors considered appropriate for males and females.
- Can vary across cultures and change over time.

Socialization

- Process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their culture.
- Influences behavior, attitudes, and identity development.

Visual Cliff experiment

- Experiment designed to assess depth perception in infants.
- Involves a visual illusion of a sudden drop-off to test whether infants perceive the drop as a cliff and hesitate to crawl over it.

Death deferral theory

- Hypothesis suggesting that deaths are postponed during culturally significant events or holidays.
- Linked to psychological and social factors influencing health and mortality.
- If someone really does not want to die immediately, they can hold it off

Habituation

- Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
- Commonly used in studies of infant perception and cognition.

Theory of mind

- Ability to understand and attribute mental states (beliefs, intentions, desires) to oneself and others.
- Develops in childhood and is essential for social interactions and understanding others' behavior.

Spotlight effect

- Phenomenon where individuals believe they are being noticed and evaluated by others more than they actually are.
- Can lead to self-consciousness and social anxiety.
- Occurs mostly during middle school years, during the adolescent stage

Jean Piaget

• Developed the theory of cognitive development, which focuses on how children construct knowledge as they interact with the world.

• Identified stages of cognitive development, such as sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

Erik Erickson

• Proposed the theory of psychosocial development, which outlines eight stages of development spanning from infancy to old age.

• Emphasized the importance of social interactions and cultural influences on personality development.

• Coined the term "identity crisis" to describe the struggle individuals face in defining their sense of self.

Lev Vygotsky

• Introduced the sociocultural theory of development, emphasizing the role of culture, social interaction, and language in cognitive development.

• Highlighted the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is the gap between what a learner can do without assistance and what they can achieve with guidance.

Carol Gilligan

• Critiqued traditional theories of moral development, arguing that they were biased toward male perspectives.

• Proposed an alternative theory of moral development that emphasizes care and relationships rather than abstract principles of justice.

Harry Harlow

• Conducted groundbreaking research on attachment in infant monkeys, demonstrating the importance of contact comfort in the formation of attachments.

• Showed that infant monkeys preferred a soft surrogate mother over a wire one with food, challenging the prevailing behaviorist theories of attachment.