AP Bio Final

Polarity of Water

Water is a polar molecule with a slight positive charge on hydrogen atoms and a slight negative charge on the oxygen atom.

Hydrogen Bonds in Water

The ability of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds, resulting in cohesive and adhesive properties.

Cohesion

The tendency of water molecules to stick to each other due to hydrogen bonding, leading to high surface tension.

Adhesion

The interaction of water molecules with other surfaces, essential for capillary action in plants.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds that include examples such as glucose (energy source) and starch (energy storage in plants).

Proteins

Macromolecules including enzymes (catalyze biochemical reactions) and hemoglobin (transport oxygen in blood).

Lipids

Fatty compounds such as triglycerides (fat storage) and phospholipids (major component of cell membranes).

Nucleic Acids

Polymers such as DNA (stores genetic information) and RNA (translates genetic information for protein synthesis).

Monomers

The building blocks of polymers, including amino acids, nucleotides, monosaccharides, and fatty acids.

Polymers

Long chains of repeating monomers, examples include proteins and polysaccharides.

Dehydration Synthesis

The process where monomers join together, releasing a water molecule to build polymers.

Hydrolysis

The process where water is added to break a polymer into its monomers.

Primary Structure of Proteins

The linear sequence of amino acids that determines the protein’s properties.

Secondary Structure of Proteins

The folding of the polypeptide into α-helices or β-pleated sheets due to hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary Structure of Proteins

The 3D shape formed by interactions between side chains of amino acids.

Quaternary Structure of Proteins

The structure formed by the interaction of multiple polypeptide chains.

Denaturation

The alteration of a protein's structure, often resulting in loss of function due to environmental factors.

Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms without a nucleus, such as bacteria.

Eukaryotes

Organisms with cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, such as plants and animals.

Endomembrane System

Includes the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vesicles involved in protein production.

Nucleus

The cell organelle that stores genetic information and controls cell activities.

Mitochondria

Organelles that produce energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.

Activation Energy

The energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Describes the cell membrane as a flexible structure composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Passive Transport

The movement of substances across the membrane without energy input.

Active Transport

The movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

Glycolysis

The first step of cellular respiration that splits glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

Citric Acid Cycle

A stage of cellular respiration that oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing electron carriers and CO₂.

Electron Transport Chain

A series of protein complexes that generate ATP using electrons from NADH and FADH₂.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose.

Light-Dependent Reactions

The stage of photosynthesis that requires light, producing ATP and NADPH while releasing O₂.

Calvin Cycle

The stage of photosynthesis that synthesizes glucose using ATP and NADPH.

Xylem

Vascular tissue responsible for transporting water and minerals from the roots to the plant.

Phloem

Vascular tissue responsible for transporting the products of photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of the plant.

Water Potential

A measure of the potential energy of water, indicating the direction of water flow.

Transpiration

The process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts.

Germination

The process by which a seed begins to grow into a new plant, requiring water, oxygen, and optimal conditions.

Stomata

Small openings on the surfaces of leaves and stems for gas exchange.

Guard Cells

Specialized cells that regulate the opening and closing of stomata.

Mitosis

A type of cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, producing four non-identical gametes.

Pedigrees

Diagrams showing the inheritance patterns of traits or genetic disorders in families.

Incomplete Dominance

An inheritance pattern where neither allele is completely dominant, resulting in a blended phenotype.

Codominance

An inheritance pattern where both alleles are fully expressed in the phenotype.

Punnett Square

A tool used to predict genetic outcomes of crosses between individuals.

Recombination Frequencies

Used to determine the distance between genes on a chromosome based on genetic crossing-over.

Chi-Square Test

A statistical method used to determine if observed genetic data significantly differ from expected ratios.

Structure of DNA

DNA is composed of two strands of nucleotides forming a double helix, held together by base pairing.

DNA Replication

The synthesis of new DNA strands during the S-phase of the cell cycle to ensure identical copies.

Transcription

The process of making an RNA copy from a DNA template in the nucleus.

Translation

The process of decoding mRNA to synthesize proteins at the ribosome.

Universal Genetic Code

Rules that define how sequences of DNA (codons) translate into amino acids during protein synthesis.

Operon Structure

A cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter, involved in gene regulation in prokaryotes.

Gene Regulation in Prokaryotes

Often involves operons that respond to environmental conditions by turning genes on or off.

Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes

More complex regulation involving enhancers, silencers, and transcription factors to control gene expression.

Light Independent Reactions

The stage of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin Cycle, that synthesizes glucose using ATP and NADPH generated in the light-dependent reactions.