Abigail L. Swingen: ‘Competing Visions of Empire: Labor, Slavery, and the Origins of the British Atlantic Empire’

What was the Western Design and why was it significant?

A military campaign launched by Cromwell (1654–55) to seize Spanish Caribbean colonies. It marked a shift to direct, state-driven imperialism by the Protectorate’s Council of State

What happened during the British attempt to capture Hispaniola in 1655?

8,000 British troops tried and failed to take Santo Domingo, losing 1,000 men, and instead turned to successfully seize Jamaica

When did the English successfully take Jamaica from the Spanish?

May 1655

How did Jamaica look by 1661 after the British conquest?

It had around 3,000 white settlers and 500 enslaved Black people

What did Swingen comment about the Jamaican conquest?

“The conquest of Jamaica was a defining moment in English imperial policies and projects in the New World”

What did Swingen comment about previous conquests before the Western Design?

“Previously, colonial acquisition in the Americas had been the reserve of trading companies and individual entrepreneurs.

Who were some key merchants influencing imperial strategy during the Commonwealth?

Colonial merchant, Maurice Thomson and trader, William Pennoyer

Which historian argued merchants reached apex political influence in the Commonwealth period?

Robert Brenner

What did Swingen comment on Cromwells’ approach to empire?

He had an “Aggressive vision of empire”

When did the New Model Army begin their campaign in Ireland?

1641

When did the New Model Army take Drogheda and Wexford?

Autumn of 1649

When was the Act of Settlement?

1652

Which militray leaders were in charge of the New Model Army’s campaign in Ireland?

Henry Ireton and Charles Fleetwood

What did the Act of Settlement (1652) do?

forcibly removing not only Catholic Irish but Catholic Old English landowners to designated settlement areas, mostly west of the river Shannon

How many Catholic landowners were forcibly removed under the Act of Settlement (1652)?

3,000 forced to surrender their land, which was then handed over to New Model Army officers

When was the 'Act Prohibiting Trade with the Barbada’s Virginia, Bermuda’s, and Antega'?

1650

What was the 'Act Prohibiting Trade with the Barbada’s Virginia, Bermuda’s, and Antega',?

Implemented an embargo on all trade to and from ‘disloyal’ colonies

What was Robert Bliss's view on colonial governance during the Commonwealth?

Bliss argued "it was made clear that these [colonial] governments did not exist by virtue of local mandates", but through Parliament’s authority

What did Swingen comment about Cromwell’s American policy?

“Reflected this imperial agenda of conquest, submission and settlement”

What acts worsened these polcies?

The Navigation acts

When was the Navigation Act of 1651?

Passed on 9th October 1651

What was the purpose of the Navigation Act of 1651?

targeted Dutch trade dominance, requiring English ownership and at least half-English crews

When was the Navigation Act of 1660?

13th September 1660

What were the effects of the Navigation Act of 1660?

It increased the English crew requirement to 75% and limited key 'enumerated' colonial goods (e.g. sugar, tobacco, indigo) to English markets