Differentiation, nuclear and cytoplasmic abnormalities, number of mitoses, extension of necrosis...
3
New cards
How do you define the stage of a cancer?
TNM classification and number
4
New cards
What is TNM classification
T: size of the tumor
N: putative regional lymph node invasion
M: distant metastases
5
New cards
What are the main steps towards formation of a cancer?
Initiation→Promotion→ Progression-→ Metastasis
6
New cards
What genes are often associated with hereditary cancers?
BRCA1, BRCA2
7
New cards
What are the first 6 hallmarks of cancer?
1\.Sustained proliferation signals
2\.Evasion of growth supressors
3\.Invasion and metastasis
4\.Replicative immortality
5\.Sustained angiogensis
6\.Resisting cell death
8
New cards
What are the 4 next generation hallmarks of cancer?
1\.Evasion of the immune system
2\.Tumour promoting inflammation
3\.Genome instability and mutation
4\.Deregulating cellular energetics
9
New cards
What is the effect of a mutation of BRCA1?
Affects the ability to repair dsDNA breaks and affects checkpoint controls during the cell cycle
10
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “ Sustained proliferation signals”
EGFR inhibitors
11
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Evasion of growth supressors”
CDK inhibitors
12
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Invasion and metastasis”
Inhibitors of HGF/cMet
13
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Replicative immortality”
\
Telomerase inhibitors
14
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark ”Sustained angiogensis”
Inhbitors of VEGF signalling
15
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Resisting cell death”
Proapoptotic drugs
16
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Evasion of the immune system”
PDL-1 and PD-1 inhibitors
17
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Tumour promoting inflammation”
selective anti-inflammatory drugs
18
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark “Genome instability and mutation”
PARP inhibitors
19
New cards
What class of drugs targets the hallmark”Deregulating cellular energetics”
Aerobic glycolysis inhibitors
20
New cards
What is Ras and what does a mutation in Ras lead to?
Ras is a proto-oncogene. A mutation in RAS makes it stay in the LOCKED conformation or GTP conformation, which means that it is continuously activated and does not require any signal for it to stimulate cell division.
21
New cards
Describe “READERS” in epigenetics
specialized domain containing proteins that identify and interpret the modifications from Writers
22
New cards
Describe “WRITERS” in epigenetics
introduce various chemical modifications on DNA and histones
23
New cards
Describe “ERASERS” in epigenetics
proteins that are capable of removing modifications to DNA or histones that were produced by epigenetic writers to regulate gene expression
24
New cards
Epigenetic transcriptional control can occur through:
1\.DNA methylation
2\.Histone modification and chromatin remodelling
3\.Non-coding RNA's
25
New cards
Name 3 epigenetic writers
1. DNMTs 2. HMTs 3. HATs
26
New cards
Name one epigenetic reader
UHRF1
27
New cards
Name 3 epigenetic erasers
1\.DNA-demethylating enzymes
2\.KDMs
3\.HDACs
28
New cards
What do DNMTs catalyze
The addition of a methyl group to the 5th carbon position of cytosines, especially at a C followed by a guanine
29
New cards
What is the reaction of DNMT
cytosine→5-methylcytosine
30
New cards
What does DNA **hyper**methylation lead to?
Promoter silencing of tumorsuppressor genes
31
New cards
What does DNA **Hypo**methylation lead to?
Genome instability and Oncogene activation
32
New cards
What does high expression of UHRF1 lead to?
Hypermethylation→Inhibition of TSG
33
New cards
What kind of biomarker can UHRF1 be?
prognosis and diagnostic biomarker
34
New cards
What does UHRF1 bind to?
HDAC1 and DNMT1 through the SRA domain
35
New cards
What are the Ten-Eleven Translocation (TET) enzymes?
DNA-demethylating enzymes (Erasers)
36
New cards
What type of reactions do the TET enzymes do?
Oxidation reactions
37
New cards
What are the reaction steps catalyzed by the TET enzymes?