SNC2D - Final Exam

Unit 1

Ionic Compounds

Ionic Compounds - Bonds formed when one electron is transferred to another

• Held together by strong electrostatic forces, made of positive cations and negative anions

• The compounds become stable because the ions become isoelectric with a noble gas

• Brittle/hard, high melting and boiling points, soluble, conductive

Cations - An ion with a positive charge (loses electrons), and is usually metal

Anions - An ion with a negative charge (gains electrons) and is usually non-metal

Multivalent Metals - Transition metals that have more than one charge

Polyatomic Ions - Atoms that stay together and carry an ionic charge, held with covalent bonds

Oxyanions - Polyatomic ions with oxygen, but the number oxygen atoms can vary

Molecular Compounds

Molecular Compounds - Compounds formed when elements share electrons

• Held together by covalent bonds between two non-metals because non-metals can’t lose electrons

• Gas at room temperature, low melting and boiling points, poor conductors due to no transfer of electrons

Diatomic Molecules - 2 atoms joined with a covalent bond that cannot be found alone in nature

• Hydrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Bromine, Iodine, Nitrogen, Chlorine

  • HOFBrINCl

Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas

Ionic

• Naming - cation goes first, anion second, change the ending to “ide”

• Formulas - write cation and anion symbols and charge, cross over and reduce

  • Multivalent

    • Naming - reverse cross-over, use Roman numerals to state the charges

    • Formulas - apply indicated charge

  • Polyatomic - group of atoms with an atomic charge

    • Naming - cation first, anion second

    • Formulas - write the charge of both and cross over, but do not change the formula of the polyatomic ion

      • Oxyanions - polyatomic ions with oxygen

        Use following endings for oxyanions:

        # of O atoms	Prefix	Suffix
        +1 O atom	per-	-ate
        Common #	-	-ate
        -1 O atom	-	-ite
        -2 O atom	hypo-	-ite

Acids

Molecular Compounds

• Naming - non-metal further left goes first, except for hydrogen, second atom becomes “ide”, use prefixes for each atom

• Formulas - apply subscript for indicated prefix

  1 - mono *	2 - di	3 - tri	4 - tetra *	5 - penta *
  6 - hexa *	7 - hepta	8 - octa *	9 - nona	10 - deca

Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Conservation of Mass - In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always the same as the total mass of the reactants

• Atoms cannot be gained or lost

Reactions

Chemical Reaction - A process in which new substances with new properties are formed

• Words, skeletons, or balanced equations can show

• Chemicals react in predictable ways due to groups

• Shown by light, colour change, odour, precipitate, and effervence

Reactants - The initial elements and compounds in a reaction

Products - The resulting elements and compounds in a reaction

States

• Solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g), aqueous solution (aq)

Synthesis - A + B → AB

• Two or more simple reactants → one product

  • Element + Element → Compound

  • Metal Oxide + Water → Metallic Hydroxide

Decomposition - AB → A + B

• One complex molecule → two or more simple products

  • Binary compound → Element + Element

  • Metallic Hydroxide → Metal oxide + Water

  • Metal Chlorates → Metallic Chloride + Oxygen

  • Hydrogen Peroxide → Water + Oxygen

  • Metallic Carbonate → Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

Single Displacement - A + BC → B + AC or C + BA

• Chemical reactions that include the displacement of one element by another

• Metal displacement

  • A + BC → B + AC, will only occur if A is higher on the activity series than C

• Non-metal displacement

  • A + BC → C + BA, will only occur if A has a higher electronegativity than C

Double Displacement - AB + CD → AD + CB

• A chemical reaction in which the positive ion in two different compounds switch places

  • At least one of the following must occur (check solubility rules):

    • At least one product is gas

    • At least one product is liquid water

    • At least one product is a precipitate

    • 2 aqueous solutions means no reaction

States of products - use solubility table

Combustion - CₓHₓ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

• Hydrocarbon and oxygen react to release energy in heat and light

• Complete - conditions are ideal for the maximum amount of oxygen to react with hydrocarbon

  • CₓHₓ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

• Incomplete - not enough available oxygen to react with all the hydrocarbon present

  • CₓHₓ + O₂ → CO₂ +/ H₂O +/ C +/ CO

Trends of Reactivity

Electronegativity - A measure of how strongly atoms attract bonding electrons

• More electronegative = more reactive

• Increases from left to right, decreases going down

  • Bigger atomic radius = pulls electrons less

Acids and Bases

Acid - produces hydrogen ions in water, sour, sticky, conductive, corossive

• Binary Acid - Two elements (HX) - A gas until dissolved in water

  • Naming - hydro+root+ic acid

• Oxyacid - hydrogen and polyatomic ions

  • Naming - root+ic acid

Base - produces hydroxide ions, bitter, slippery, conductive, non corrosive, reacts with proteins

pH scale - power of hydrogen, every level towards the center is 10x weaker

• To neutralize, add a base that is equally distanced (7 is neutral)

• 0 = strongest acid, 14 = strongest base

Indicators

Reactions

• Acids + metals (single displacement) → ionic salt

• Acid from a non-metal oxide (synthesis)

• Base from metallic oxide (synthesis)

• Neutralization → Aqueous compound and water

Unit 2

Factors Affecting Earth’s Climate

Solar Energy

• Solar energy output - can turn into thermal energy, conduction, convection, radiation, sunspots and flares

  • Albedo - light is reflected, Heat Sink - absorbs heat

• Curvature of the Earth - energy is affected by angle of incidence and latitude

• Tilt of the Earth - creates annual changes in temperature and seasons

• Earth’s orbit - elliptical orbit means the earth is getting more radiation

The Atmosphere

• Solution of gases - exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, troposphere (bad ozone)

• Reflects and absorbs energy, shields earth from dangerous radiation

• Wind rises and cools and sinks and creates currents

The Hydrosphere

• Water - 70% of earth’s surface

• Evaporation, sublimation, condensation, precipitation, runoff

• Heat sink (high heat capacity)

• Moves thermal energy away from the equator (ocean conveyor, thermohaline)

  • cold air = cold and dry dessert, warm air = most rainforests

• Carbon sink - stored in plankton and shells as carbonates

The Lithosphere

• Continents move from Pangea at the center

• Mountains and volcanoes create rain shadows and dust and GHG

The Greenhouse Effect

• Natural effect, but exasperated by human emissions

• Amount of energy absorbed = amount of energy reflected

• GHGs - CO₂ (1), CH4 (25), Ozone (65), Nitrous Oxide (298), Halocarbons (5000+)

Methods of Predicting Past Climate Conditions

Rising Global Temperatures

• Temperatures have been rising since 1800s

Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases

• CO₂ has been increasing since the 50s

Ice Core Analysis

• GHG levels have risen since 1700s

• Can be 3km in length, up to 800,000 years ago

• Air is trapped in bubbles, provides gas concentration of atmosphere

• Dissolved and particulate matter inside (dust, ash, salts, pollen)

• Physical conditions show how ice was formed

• Composition of air bubbles and ice

Dendrochronology

• Wide tree rings = wetter and warmer

• Light rings = spring/summer, dark rings = winter/fall

Sedimentary Rock

• Examines carbon isotopes in rocks, indicates amount of carbon being cycled (more = warmer)

• Varves = annual sedimentary layers

Interpreting Graph Data in Climate Context

• A drop in CO₂ might signify less CO₂ emitting behaviours, like less driving/AC/tourism, or less photosynthesis

Positive and Negative Feedback Loops

• Positive = enhances initial effect

• Negative = decreases initial effect

Unit 3

Cells

The Cell Theory

• All living things are made of cells

• Cells are the basic units of life

  • Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems

• Cells come from pre-existing cells

  • Mitosis/meiosis/binary fission

Cell Categories

• Prokaryotes

  • “Pro-” = before, “-karyotes” = nucleus

  • Mostly unicellular, except for some (ex. myxobacteria) that have multicellular stages

  • Functions of a prokaryotic cell

    • Movement

    • Protein synthesis

    • Attachment

    • DNA transfer

    • Enzymes for metabolism

    • Entry and exit of substances

  • Types of prokaryotes

    • Bacteria

    • Archaea (extremophile)

      • Volcanoes, halophiles

  • No nucleus

    • DNA is loosely grouped in an unbound nucleoid

  • No nucleolus

• Eukaryotes

  • “Eu-” = true, “-karyotes” = nucleus

  • Complex cells that have a true nucleus

    • Animals, protists, fungi, plants

  • Contain DNA in the nucleus, which directs cell activity and gives instructions

  • Nucleolus in the nucleus contains genes responsible for making ribosomes

Cell Structure

• Cell - The basic functional, structural, and biological unit of all living organisms

• The cell is divided into three main parts

  • Cell membrane

  • Nucleus

  • Cytoplasm

Organelles

Cell Membrane - The gatekeeper of the cell and controls movement of materials in and out of the cell, and separates the interior and exterior of the cell

• Phospholipid bilayer - The two layers of fat molecules called phospholipids that make up the cell membrane

  • Phospholipid - Fat molecules composed of a hydrophilic phosphate head and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails

    • The polar heads are attracted to water

    • The tails repel water and congregate in the middle of the membrane

• Channel proteins - Proteins that help with the transport of materials such as nutrients and hormones into the cell

• Glycoproteins - Proteins that help with cell-to-cell interactions and the detection of bacteria and viruses

• Cholesterol - Lipids that help maintain the fluidity of the membrane at different temperatures

• The cell membrane is selectively permeable, so only certain substances can go in and out

• Types of transport

  • Passive transport - Transport that does not require energy and follows the concentration gradient, including diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion

    • Diffusion - The movement of particles of one specific time from an area of high concentration to low concentration across the cell membrane

      • Small molecules (ex. O2 and CO2) cross the cell membrane by squeezing between phospholipid molecules

      • Continues until equilibrium (evenly distributed molecules)

    • Facilitated diffusion - The use of channel proteins to allow larger or charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane

    • Osmosis - The diffusion of water particles from an area of high concentration of water to a low concentration of water

      

      • Hypertonic solution - A higher concentration of solutes and lower concentration of water

        • A cell in a hypertonic solution will shrivel, as water moves out

      • Isotonic solution - An equal concentration of solutes and water

      • Hypotonic solution - A lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water

        • A cell in a hypotonic solution will swell, as water moves in

  • Active transport - Transport that requires energy and goes against the concentration gradient, including endocytosis, exocytosis, and ion pumps

    • Requires ATP (adenosine triphosphate), whose bonds are broken to release usable energy

    • Ion pumps - Transport proteins/pumps that transport small, charged molecules (Ca, K, Na ions) across the cell membrane

    • Endocytosis - The process of taking large materials into the cell by engulfing them within a vesicle

      

      • Phagocytosis - When a cell “eats”

        • Ex. white blood cells engulf bacteria

      • Pinocytosis - When a cell “drinks”

        • Ex. kidneys take in fluid and nutrients

    • Exocytosis - The process of taking large materials out of the cell

Cell Wall - Provides shape and support for the cell membrane

Nucleus - Controls the cell and contains genetic material

Nucleolus - Produces and assembles ribosomes

Nuclear Membrane - Acts as a barrier to protect the nucleus from the other contents in the cytoplasm

Golgi Apparatus - Processes and packages proteins and other molecules

Mitochondria - Produces energy (ATP) and is part of cellular respiration

Lysosome - Digests materials in the cytoplasm

Ribosome - Creates proteins

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Contains ribosomes and produces proteins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Produces lipids and hormones

Chloroplast - Produces energy for plant cells through photosynthesis

Centriole - Organizes microtubules

Cytoplasm - Holds the components of the cells

Vacuole - Stores water and nutrients

Cell Cycle and Cancer

Cell Cycle

• Cells undergo division to grow, develop, repair, and reproduce

• The cell cycles through different stages

  • Interphase - The active phase where cells do their intended jobs, grow, repair, and copy DNA

    • During interphase, there are checkpoints to ensure DNA is copying properly

    • G1 (Growth 1) - Rapidly grows, cells function normally, organelles duplicate

    • S (Synthesis) - DNA is replicated in the nucleus

      • The nucleus replicates DNA to form double stranded chromosomes that are joined in the middle by a centromere

      • DNA is copied by the double helix unwinding, and each strand serves as a template for a new strand

        • A and T pair together, C and G pair together

      • The replicated DNA is attached together by a centromere, forming 2 sister chromatids

      • When the sister chromatids are split during mitosis, they are daughter chromatids

    • G2 (Growth 2) - Cell prepares for cell division

  • Mitosis - The process by which genetic material is duplicated so that dividing cells each have a nucleus with a complete set of DNA

    • Prophase - The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear, and spindle fibres form, connecting to the centrosomes at the poles of the cell and attach to each side of the sister chromatids

    • Metaphase - The spindle fibres pull the chromosomes into a line across the middle of the cell

    • Anaphase - The spindle fibres pull the centromere apart, so that the daughter chromosomes are moving to opposite poles of the cell

    • Telophase - One complete set of chromosomes are at opposite poles, and the nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear

  • Cytokinesis - The division of cell cytoplasm and creation of a new cell

    • In animal cells, filaments constrict and pinch the cytoplasm along the cell membrane

    • In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two cells

• Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission

• Hayflick limit - The limit cells have on their lifespan and the number of times they can divide

  • Skin cells are replaced daily

  • Red blood cells live 120 days and can replace 2-3 million per second

  • Nerve cells do not reproduce

Cancer

• Cancer - DNA mutations which result in uncontrolled mitosis, where the cells do not carry out normal functions and outcompete normal cells for nutrients and space

  • Cancerous cells skip interphase, so they do not function as a part of the organ system

    • The cells take resources without providing their intended function

  • Mutations damage the genes that control checkpoints, so cancerous cells miss the checkpoints that prevent mutations and signal apoptosis

    • The absence of genes such as the tumor suppressor p53 cause uncontrollable cell division

    • Oncogenes that are mutated prevent apoptosis

    • Apoptosis - The programmed death of cells that do not pass the checkpoints

    • Mutation - Random changes to DNA

      • 2/3 of cancers are caused by random DNA

      • Some of this DNA can be genetic

      • Mutagens - Any environmental factor that causes mutations, but not necessarily cancer

      • Carcinogens - Any environmental factor that causes cancer

  • Cancer is not one disease with a single cause or set of symptom

  • Types of cancer:

    • Benign - Cancer that does not affect surrounding tissues, except by physically crowding them

    • Malignant - A tumor that interferes with the functioning of surrounding cells due to blockage and the death of healthy cells

    • Metastasis - Cancer cells that break away from the primary tumor and establish a secondary tumor elsewhere in the body

  • Can be prevented by a healthy diet and exercise

  • Can be detected with re8gular screenings such as pap tests, self exams, ABCDEs of skin cancer, colonoscopies, X-Rays, Ultrasounds, MRIs, and CT scans

  • Can be treated by:

    • Surgery, where the tumor is removed

    • Radiation, where cancerous cells are targeted with high energy radiation which destroys DNA, but also kills healthy cells

    • Chemotherapy, where rapidly divided cells are target, including hair follicles

    • Usually, multiple methods are used to treat cancer, so that the tumor can be small enough to be removed by surgery

Cell Specialization and Organ Systems

• Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism

Cellular Differentiation

• Originated from the zygote undergoing mitosis

• Embryonic stem cells are the inner cells of the blastocyst that can differentiate into any kind of cell

  • Cytoplasmic differences - asymmetric distribution of organelles and other factors results in different daughter cells

  • Environmental conditions

  • Neighbouring cells - signals produced by other cells nearby

  • Cause different genes to be expressed

• Embryonic that can differentiate into anything, and adult that only exist in some tissues (ex. bone marrow)

Tissue Types

• Epithelial - internal and external surfaces of the body, and form adjoining cell membranes

• Muscular - tissue moves the body by contradicting and relaxing

  • Voluntary (skeletal) and involuntary (smooth)

• Connective - tissue strengthens, supports, and protects other tissue

• Nervous - made of neurons with long projections that send and receive signals

Lymphatic System

• Works with immune system to defend against disease

• Lymph (nodes/vessels/fluids), spleen (blood filter), thymus gland (stimulates T-Cells)

• Lymphatic vessels transport lymph with white blood cells

• Works with circulatory

Excretory System

• Filters wastes from the blood and forms urine

• Kidneys (filters waste), ureters (carries urine to bladder), bladder, urethra

• Works with circulatory

Endocrine System

• Produces hormone signals that regulate bodily functions

• Hormones are produced by glands and are sent to different body parts via the bloodstream

• Pancreas (insulin/glucagon), adrenal glands (adrenaline), thyroid glands (thyroxine), ovaries/testes (reproductive organs), pituitary glands (growth), pineal glands (sleep cycle)

• Works with nervous to regulate bodily functions

Circulatory System

Functions

• To transport nutrients, hormones, and oxygen

• Removes waste from celles

• Regulates internal body temperature

• Protect against blood loss from injury with platelets

Types of Systems and Components

• Open - blood flows freely within the body cavity (insects)

• Closed - fixed path of circulation

  • Blood vessels: system of hollow tubes

    • Arteries: carry blood away from the heart, elastic and muscular, small lumen

    • Veins: carry blood to the heart, one-way valves, large lumen

  • Heart - muscle that pumps blood

  • Blood - Fluid with nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide

    • 55% plasma - water and dissolved gases, proteins, sugars, vitamins, hormones

    • 45% solid portion - blood cells and platelets from bone marrow

      • Red blood cells - erythrocytes, iron atom, no nucleus

      • White blood cells - leucocytes

        • Basophil, eosinophil - immune response

        • Lymphocytes - antibody production

        • Neutrophil, monocyte - first responders

      • Platelets - fragments of cells that aid in blood clotting

  • Capillaries - 1 cell thick, allows exchange/diffusion

Mammalian Circulatory System

• From lungs to heart (pulmonary) and heart and body (systematic) (cardiac circulation)

• The right side receives blood from the body’s veins via the superior and inferior vena cava

• Blood enters the right atrium through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle and out the pulmonary valve

• The heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen via the pulmonary arteries

• The oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the lungs via the pulmonary veins

• The blood enters the left atrium and travels to the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve

• The heart pumps it through the aortic valve and into the aorta to flow to the rest of the body

• The bicuspid/tricuspid valves are atrioventricular valves while the pulmonary valves are semilunar

• Disorders

  • Atherosclerosis

  • Hypertension

  • Heart disease, stroke

  • Anemia

  • Hemophilia

  • Leukemia

Respiratory System

Breathing and Respiration

Breathing - The mechanical process of air exchange in a body cavity

• Ventilation systems are needed to bring air into moist membranes (lungs) so that oxygen and waste can be diffused across the alveoli into the blood (concentration gradients)

• Three stages:

  1. Ventilation - The movement of air into and out of the lungs in two stages (inspiration and expiration), controlled by movement of the diaphragm and ribcage

     • Inspiration - Diaphragm contracts and flattens, lungs increase in size and decrease in pressure

     • Expiration - Diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome-shape, lungs decrease in size and increase in pressure

  2. Gas Exchange - The diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood at the alveoli and the respiring tissues

  3. Cell Respiration - The production of ATP at the cellular level

     • Respiration - Biochemical process of gas exchange

       **Breathing is not respiration

     • C6 H12 O2 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O +32ATP

       • Aerobic Respiration - Respiration that uses oxygen

       • Anaerobic Respiration - Respiration that does not use oxygen

Components of the Respiratory System

• Provides oxygen needed by the body and removes carbon dioxide

• Nasal Cavity - Entryway for air, also known as the nose

• Oral Cavity - Entryway for air, also known as the mouth

• Cilia - Hairlike structures that trap foreign particles from the air

• Pharynx - The upper part of the throat

• Epiglottis - Seals off the larynx when eating so that food is not inhaled, and allows air to pass into the trachea.

• Larynx - Contains the vocal cords for making sounds

• Trachea - The long tube that brings air to the bronchi

• Bronchi - Two tubes that bring air into each of the lungs

• Lungs - Two organs that contain bronchioles and alveoli, so that gas exchange may occur

• Bronchioles - Small passageways that end in alveoli

• Alveoli - Air sacs that allow gas exchange to occur between the lungs and capillaries

  • The capillaries passing the alveoli contain blood high in CO2 and low in O2

  • Inhaling and exhaling allow the alveoli to maintain low CO2 and high O2

  • This creates a concentration gradient that allows gas to passively diffuse

    • The alveoli increase the surface area for gas exchange

    • Both the capillaries and alveoli have thin, moist membranes that dissolve gases and allow easy diffusion

      

• Diaphragm - A dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that contracts and relaxes to control breathing

Digestive System

Components of Digestion

• Breaks down food into small molecules of nutrients that can diffuse across membranes

• Mouth - Where digestion begins, both chemically (salivary enzymes) and mechanically (teeth and tongue)

  • Salivary Glands - Produces the enzyme amylase

    • Amylase - Enzyme that digests starch/carbs

      • Enzyme - Catalysts that speed up chemical processes in the body

• Esophagus - Where the bolus (food and saliva) is pushed to the stomach by peristalsis

  • Peristalsis - Involuntary muscle contractions in the digestive track

• Stomach - Where the food is further broken down chemically and mechanically

  • Contractions break down the bolus into chyme

    • Chyme - Bolus and gastric fluids

  • The hydrochloric acid (HCl, pH = 2) kills bacteria and breaks apart food

    • The stomach is lined with protective mucus, and two sphincters (lower esophagus and pyloric) ensure that nothing leaks out

  • Pepsin - Enzyme that digests proteins

• Liver - Produces bile (a basic fluid) to neutralize stomach acid

• Gallbladder - Stores bile

• Pancreas - Releases enzymes (amylase, lipase, trypsin)

• Small Intestine - Digests food coming from the stomach and absorbs nutrients

  • Villi/Microvilli - Small projections lining the small intestine that absorb nutrients with increased surface area

    • A thin membrane and a concentration gradient allows easy diffusion from the villi to capillaries

    • Lacteals - Lymph vessels that allow lipids to be absorbed from the digestive system

  • Duodenum - The first part of the small intestine that is the main point of digestion

    • Bile from the gall bladder and liver neutralizes the acid and emulsifies fats

    • Enzymes from the pancreas digest food

      • Lipase - Enzyme that digests fat

      • Trypsin - Enzyme that digests proteins

  • Jejunum - The second part of the small intestine

  • Ileum - The third part of the small intestine that absorbs the digested food, and pushes undigested food into the colon by peristalsis

• Large Intestine - Re-absorbs water into the blood, leaving solid feces

  • Ascending Colon - Moves food up

  • Transverse Colon - Moves food across

  • Descending Colon - Moves food down

  • Sigmoid Colon - Empties digested into the rectum and anus

Reproductive System

Functions of the Reproductive System

• Produce sperm/eggs

• Produces secondary sex characteristics

  • Males: facial and body hair, deepening voice

  • Females: breast development, widening hips

• In the 6th to 8th week of fetal development, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome is activated to initiate male sex determination

  • Homologous Structures - Structures that arise from the same tissues during sexual differentiation

    • Ovaries/testes, clitoris/penis, labia/scrotum

Male Reproductive System

• Testes - Oval shaped structures that produce sperm and testosterone in the scrotum

• Scrotum - A sac that hangs outside the body as cooler temperatures produce healthy sperm

• Epididymis - The maturing place of sperm on top of each testis

• Vas Deferens - A long tube that transports sperm to the prostate gland

• Seminal Vesicles - Produces fluid that nourishes sperm, located near the bladder

• Prostate Gland - Produces fluid that nourishes sperm, located below the bladder

• Semen - Mixture of sperm and seminal fluid

• Urethra - A tube that connects the bladder and prostate to the end of the penis to transport urine and semen

• Penis - The organ used to deposit the semen into the female reproductive organs

Female Reproductive System

• Ovaries - Oval-shaped structures that produce eggs and the hormones estrogen and progesterone

• Fallopian Tubes - Carry the egg towards the uterus

  • Also known as oviducts

  • Fertilization usually happens here

  • Lined with cilia to gently push the egg

• Uterus - A hollow pear-shaped organ where the fetus develops

  • The uterine lining thickens every month

• Cervix - The opening of the uterus, connected to the vagina

• Vagina - The passageway for sperm to enter the uterus, and menstrual blood and offspring to exit

• Labia - External structures that enclose and protect internal organs

• Clitoris - The organ for sexual arousal

Menstrual Cycle

• Menstruation - The shedding of the uterine lining, occurring once per month from menarche to menopause, but not during pregnancy

  • Menarche - The start of the reproductive period

  • Menopause - The end of the reproductive period

• The menstrual cycle is made of the follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phase

  

  • Usually between 21 and 35 days

  • Can be affected by age, diet, and activity level

  • Regulated by luteinizing hormones (LH) and follicle stimulating hormones (FSH) released by the pituitary gland

    • These hormones promote ovulation and stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone

      • Ovulation - Release of an egg by the ovary

      • Estrogen - The hormone that regulates female secondary sex characteristics and prepares the uterus and breasts for fertilization

      • Progesterone - The hormone that prepares the uterine lining for fertilization, signalled by the corpus luteum

  • Follicular Phase - Before egg release

    • Day 1 - Menstruation begins (usually lasts to day 3-7)

    • Follicle Stimulating Hormone - The hormone released during the follicular phase to stimulate the growth of follicles which contain an egg

  • Ovulatory Phase - Egg is released

    • Luteinizing Hormone - The hormone that stimulates the dominant follicle to burst and release and egg into the fallopian tube

    • The egg can be fertilized for 12 hours after release

    • Estrogen, produced by follicles, and LH peak at ovulation

  • Luteal Phase - After egg release

    • The empty follicle that becomes the corpus luteum

    • If the egg is fertilized and implanted, the placenta produced human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

      • Human Chorionic Gonadotropin - The hormone that maintains the corpus luteum and allows it to continue producing progesterone

    • Progesterone peaks here

Hormones and Conditions

• Testosterone and estrogen are found in both males and females, but at different amounts

  • Males have more testosterone

    • Testosterone regulates healthy muscle development, bone density, mood regulation, and sex drive

  • Females have more estrogen

  • These hormones are produced in the gonads and the adrenal glands above the kidneys

• Intersex Conditions - Atypical variations in sex characteristics caused by chromosomal or hormonal irregularities

  • Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome - The hormonal disorder that is and inability to respond to androgens

  • Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia - The hormonal disorder that is an excess or absence of androgens

  • Klinefelter’s Syndrome - The chromosomal disorder of having XXY chromosomes

  • Turner’s Syndrome - The chromosomal disorder of having XO chromosomes

Immune System

Functions of the Immune System

• The immune system is the defence against pathogens (bacteria), malfunctioning cells, and foreign particles

• Made of three lines of defense:

  • First Line of Immune Defense - Prevents foreign particles from entering the body in a non-specific manner

    • Epidermis - The outer layer of skin that forms a shield against invaders and secretes chemicals that kill invaders

    • Foreign particles bump into mucus, and cilia sweep this mucus into the throat for coughing or swallowing

    • Saliva contains chemicals that break down bacteria

    • Swallowed pathogens are killed by hydrochloric acid in the stomach

  • Second Line of Immune Defense - Cell-mediated, non-specific immune response

    • Cell-Mediated Immune Response - White blood cells destroy invaders in a non-specific way

      • White Blood Cells - Circulate in blood and enter body tissues if there is an invader to attack

      • Phagocytes - Engulf foreign particles and break them down with lysosomes

      • Natural Killer Cells - Release enzymes that perforate infected human cells and cancer cells

      • The Inflammatory Response - Injured body cells release histamines, which cause coughing, fevers, swelling, pain, and white blood cells going to a certain area

      • Interferons - Chemicals released by virus-infected body cells that interfere with the virus’ ability to attack other body cells.

  • Third Line of Immune Defense - Antibody mediated, specific immune response

    • Infections that reach the third line of defense trigger antibody production

      • Antibody - A protein that latches onto specific antigens and flags them

        

      • B-Cells - Lymphocytes that use pieces of antigens to produce antibodies that are equipped to find that antigen and attach to them, making it easily identifiable by white blood cells

      • T-Cells - White blood cells that coordinate antibody production and attack cells that have been tagged by B-cells

      • Adaptive Immunity - An immunity develops more immune responses as it is exposed to more antigens

        • B-cells and T-cells are a part of adaptive immunity

        • A person will remain ill until a new antibody can be crafted for that specific antigen, and then immunity will be achieved

Immunity

• There are two types of immunity

  • Active Immunity - The immune system of the infected body develops a response and fights the invader

    • Vaccines - Preventative drugs that introduce the body to weakened antigens to develop antibodies

      • Antigens may mutate or no longer be recognized by the antibodies, so additional vaccines are needed

    • Infections force the body to develop responses

  • Passive Immunity - Immunity that is gained from another body

    • During pregnancy, the mother’s immunity is passed onto the baby through the placenta, protecting the baby for a short period of time

    • Antibodies can be artificially injected to pass on immunity

• Allergies - An immune disorder where the immune system recognizes harmless foreign particles as a serious threat, and causes an immune response with histamines

Vaccines

Diseases Caused by Viruses

• HIV/AIDS

• Hepatitis

• The flu

• The common cold

• Rabies

Antibodies

• When antibodies are made for a certain pathogen, immunity against it will be created

  

Vaccines

• Preventative drugs that protect the person before they get infected

  1. Vaccines inject a small piece or weakened version of the pathogen

  2. The body responds by making antibodies, with little to no symptoms

  3. If encountered again, the body will be able to fight the pathogen

• Benefits include:

  • Avoiding suffering, disability, and death

  • Reduced the risk of contagion

  • Reduces strain on the health care system

  • Saves money for other health services

• Herd Immunity - When enough people are vaccinated to protect society at large by limiting the incidences of infections and spreading

• Eradication - Permanent global reduction to zero or no cases of an infection

  • Smallpox, which killed over 300 million people, was eradicated in 1978

  • Poliomyelitis is almost eradicated

  • Maternal and neonatal tetanus will soon be eliminated in 14 high-risk countries

  • Measles is resurfacing because infected people expose unprotected people to the disease

    • Unprotected people include those who have not had a vaccine or the necessary booster vaccines

• Anti-vaxxer arguments include:

  • Religious or ethical reasons

  • “Not enough evidence”

  • Lack of trust in drug companies

  • Possible side effects

  • “Autism”

• Side-effects to vaccines:

  • Pain or swelling at the injection site

  • Fever

  • Fatigue

  • Headaches

  • The flu

  • Allergic reactions

• Who should not get vaccinated?

  • Those with immune diseases

  • Those who have had negative reactions to vaccines in the past

Viruses

Viruses

• Viruses - Small infectious agents that can only be replicated inside of the host cell

  • Can infect all living things, including bacteria and archaea

  • 5,000 viruses have been classified

  • Viruses can be passed on through breathing or swallowing, being bitten, or through sexual contact

• They are not living because they lack cell structure and do not undergo most cellular processes (ex. metabolism)

• Viruses carry genetic material (RNA/DNA), replicate, and evolve

  • Protein Capsid - Contains genetic material, and is usually spherical or icosahedral

• The four main types of virus shapes:

  

  • Spherical

  • Polyhedral

  • Helical

  • Complex

• Some viruses have a lipid envelope

  • Lipid Envelope - A lipid bilayer taken from a host cell that allows the virus to pass through the cell membrane

Fighting Viruses

• Antibiotics - Combatants of living organisms, like bacteria, but are NOT effective against viruses

• Antivirals - Stops viral development inside cells

• Vaccines train the body’s immune system to recognize and combat viruses

Virus Replication Cycles

• Lytic Cycle - The replication of viruses in an organism that result in immediate symptoms

  • The virus injects its genetic material into the host cell

  • The virus uses the host’s organelles to manufacture new virus parts

  • Viruses burst out of the host cell and kill it (lysis)

• Lysogenic Cycle - The replication of viruses in an organism that remain latent until an environmental stressor causes the virus to enter the lytic cycle

Coronavirus

• Covid-19 is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 or SARS-CoV-2

• It is transmitted via respiratory droplets or contaminated surfaces

• It is inactivated by soap

• The two types of vaccines that combat Covid-19 are mRNA and Vector

• Physical distancing can effectively slow down the virus spreading, and prevent the overwhelming of the healthcare system

• WHO, the World Health Organization, is responsible for international health

  • Advocates for universal healthcare, monitors public health risks, coordinates responses to health emergencies, and promotes human health and well-being

  • The three stages of government in Canada have public health agencies

Plants

Plant Organ Systems

• System - A group of tissues and organs that perform specific functions

• Root System - An organ system in a plant which takes in water and mineral from the soil and transports these substances to the shoot system

• Shoot System - An organ system in a plant, which supports the plant, performs photosynthesis, and transports the sap

  • Flowers and fruits are either considered part of the shoot system or part of a separate system

  • Gymnosperms - Seed plants that don’t flower (ex. pinecones)

  • Angiosperms - Flowering/fruiting plants whose seeds develop in the ovaries of the plant

    • Monocot - Angiosperms with 1 cotyledon, fibrous roots, parallel leaf veins, scattered stem vascular bundles, and flower parts in threes

    • Dicot - Angiosperms with 2 cotyledons, tap roots, net leaf veins, vascular bundles form a ring, and flower parts in fours or fives

• Stamen - The male pollen producing reproductive organ in the flower, consisting of an anther and a filament.

  • Anther - Pollen-filled sac

  • Filament - Holds the anther in position making it available to plants

• Sepals - Small, green leaf-like structures that protect that flower bud

  • Calyx - Collective term for the sepals

• Pistil - Female reproductive parts of the flower, consisting of the stigma, the style, and the ovary, also known as the carpal

  • Fertilized eggs will develop into seeds

  • Stigma - Sticky and wet, it is where the pollen lands

  • Style - The part of the flower through which sperm cells travel to reach the plant’s egg cells

  • Ovary - Part of the flower where plant cells are found

• Monoecious - Plants that have both male and female reproductive organs on the same plant (ex. squash)

• Diecious - Separate plants for male and female reproductive organs (ex. holly)

The Malpighi Experiment

• Malpighi peeled a ring of bark and phloem from a tree

• Shortly after, swelling appeared immediately above the ring

• The tree died a few weeks later

• The glucose tried to get to the roots from the leaves, but the channel was blocked

Collecting Sap

• Tree Girdling - Stripping a thin layer of bark to force the sucrose to stay on the top half of the tree

  • Farmers may trap sugar in fruits using this method

• In the spring, nourishment is needed for new tree buds

  • Once leaves have grown they can obtain their own glucose

  • In summer and fall, extra glucose is stored in the roots as starch

  • It stays in the roots for all of winter

  • In the spring, starch is converted into sucrose and flows up the tree to nourish the leaves

    • Tapping a tree at this point can harvest the flowing sap

Unit 4