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Context-dependent Memory
Memory retrieval is improved when in the same context where the information was learned.
Steroeotype threat
just being aware of negative stereotypes that apply to your group can negatively impact your performance on intelligence tests
LL Thurstone
opposed Spearman’s idea of a single general intelligence, Thurstone identified seven clusters of “primary mental abilities”
Evidence of underlying g factor
empiricism
the view that knowledge should be acquired through observation and often an experiment
theory
a collection of interrelated ideas and facts put forward to describe, explain, and predict behavior and mental processes
hypothesis
a tentative statement or idea expressing a causal relationship between two events or variables that is to be evaluated in a research study
experiment
a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates and observes elements of a situation in order to test a hypothesis and make a cause-and-effect statement
independent variable
the variable in a controlled experiment that the experimenter directly and purposefully manipulates to see how the other variables under study will be affected
dependent variable
the variable in a controlled experiment that is expected to change due to the manipulation of the independent variable
operational definition
a definition of a variable in terms of the set of methods or procedures used to measure or study that variable
case study
a highly detailed description of a single individual or an event
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior naturally without trying to manipulate and control the situation
correlational research
establish the relationship between two variables
survey research
the measurement of public opinion through the use of sampling and questioning
experimenter bias
expectation of the person conducting an experiment which may affect the outcome
observer bias
expectations of an observer which may distort an authentic observation
response bias
preconceived notions of a person answering [a survey] which may alter the experiments purpose
informed consent
the agreement of participants to take part in an experiment and their acknowledgement that they understand the nature of their participation in the research, and have been fully informed about the general nature of the research, its goals, and methods
placebo
typically a pill that is used as a control in the experiment; a sugar pill
pseudoscience
an unscientific system which pretends to discover psychological information that his means are unscientific or deliberately fraudulent
representative sample
selection of a part of the population which mirrors the current demographics
significant difference
in an experiment, a difference that is unlikely to have occurred because of chance alone and is inferred to be most likely due to the systematic manipulations of variables by the researcher
self-fulfilling prophecy
when a researcher (or individuals) expectations unknowingly create a situation that affects the results
descriptive statistics
general set of procedures used to summarize, condense, and describe sets of data
frequency distribution
a chart or array of scores, usually arranged from highest to lowest, showing the number of instances for each score
structuralism
school of psychological thought that considered the structure and elements of conscious experience to be the proper subject matter of psychology
introspection
a person's description and analysis of what he or she is thinking and feeling or what he or she has just thought about
functionalism
school of psychological thought that was concerned with how and why the conscious mind works
psychoanalytic
perspective developed by freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware
Gestalt psychology
school of psychological thought that argued that behavior cannot be studied in parts but must be viewed a s whole
behaviorism
perspective that defines psychology as the study of behavior that is directly observable or through assessment instruments
cognitive psychology
perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking
humanistic psychology
perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the idea that humans have free will
self-actualization
the human need to fulfill one's potential
sociocultural psychology
perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior
evolutionary psychology
perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors
positive psychology
in emerging psychology that focuses on positive experiences; includes subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to boorish
placebo effect
response to the belief that the IV will have an effect, rather than the IV's actual effect, which can be a confounding variable
refractory period
after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be
acetylcholine (ACh)
neurotransmitter that causes contraction of skeletal muscles; lack of Ach linked with Alzheimer's disease;
action potential
an electrical current sent down the axon of a neuron and is initiated by the rapid reversal of the polarization of the cell membrane
adrenal glands
endocrine glands located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which prepare the body for "fight or flight"
afferent neuron
nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons
all-or-none principle
the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all
amygdala
part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors
aphasia
inability to understand or use language
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and communicating
autonomic nervous system
a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
axon terminal
terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters
axon
a single long, fiber that carries outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands
behavioral genetics
study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking
brain
portion of the CNS above the spinal cord; consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
brainstem
top of the spinal column
Broca's area
located in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
cerebellum
part of the brain that coordinates balance, movement, reflexes
(cerebral) cortex
wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement
chromosome
threadlike structure within the nucleus of cells that contain genes
computerized axial tomography (CT scan)
creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain
corpus callosum
large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s
dendrites
branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes
dopamine
neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
EEG (electroencephalogram)
shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp
efferent neuron
nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons
endocrine glands
the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream
endocrine system
glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which regulate body and behavioral processes
endorphins
chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain; may induce feelings of pleasure
epinephrine
adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster
excitatory neurotransmitter
chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire
family studies
studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative
fraternal twins
twins from two separate fertilized eggs (zygotes); share half of the same genes
frontal lobes
control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; speech (Broca's area); controls movement of muscles
functional MRI (fMRI)
shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of neurons; linked with Huntington's disease
glial cells
supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that is due to genetic causes
hippocampus
part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
hormone
chemical that carries messages that travel through the bloodstream to help regulate bodily functions
human genomes
30,000 genes needed to build a human
hypothalamus
area of the brain that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors such as, eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, motivation; also body temperature
identical twins
twins from a single fertilized egg (zygote) with the same genetic makeup; also called monozygotic (MZ) twins
inhibitory neurotransmitter
chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing
insulin
hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too much-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes
interneurons
nerve cell that transmits messages between sensory and motor neurons
limbic system
a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
creates a computerized image using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves
medulla (also medulla oblongata)
part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature
midbrain
the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe
motor neurons
efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands
motor projection areas
primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands
myelin sheath
a white, fatty covering of the axon which speeds transmission of message
neural impulse
action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin)
neural plasticity
Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically
neurogenesis
production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life
neuroscience
study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers released by terminal buttons into the synapse
norepinephrine
noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response
occipital lobes
primary area for processing visual information
pancreas
organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones insulin and glucagon