Exam 2 Psychology of Women and Gender

UNT

Objectification

referring to bodies as objects to be viewed by others for their pleasure/judgement, talking as if there is no person attached.

Self-objectification

women become preoccupied with their own bodies

Self-objectification theory

exposure to sexual objectification in society -> self-objectification objectified body consciousness -> greater body shame, greater anxiety, lower internal bodily awareness, reduced flow experiences  -> eating disorders, depression, sexual dysfunction, reduced cognitive performance.

How does self-objectification theory explain the relationship between social objectification and individual psychological outcomes?

• Women start to objectify their own bodies and bodies of other women. 

• Distraction causes worse performance on cognitive tasks (ex: someone makes a comment about your body when you enter a classroom, overhearing fat talk, trying on bikinis vs. sweaters)

• Begin to avoid spaces/roles like going to gym, public speaking, social media

• Negative emotional outcomes - more shame about body, depression

Normative discontent

very few are happy with their body or feel they meet the ideal.

Identify common beauty norms for women in the general US culture.

• Able-bodied- women with disabilities describe feeling invisible or fetishized 

• Cis-gendered- beauty standards reinforce trad femininity 

• Thin

• White- or as close to white as you can get (colorism), hair texture 

• Hairless 

Cultivation theory

if you constantly see images of a certain type of girl or woman, you're  going to believe this is typical/achievable.

Describe features of a traditional sexual script & identify what they communicate about the assumptions we hold for normative sexual interactions.

• Emphasis on virginity 

• Heteronormativity (also performative bisexuality meaning women engaging in behaviors  for pleasure of men) 

• Centering men’s experience and penile penetration/ejaculation 

• “Good sex” is magically pleasure/spontaneous/only for young people

Abstinence Only

teaching nothing but abstinence to prevent pregnancy & STIs (DOES NOT WORK)

Abstinence Plus

• Majority time spent teaching abstinence and saying it is best, then spending little time on other ways to prevent pregnancy and STIs (ASSOCIATED WITH DELAYED SEXUAL ACTIVITY & REDUCED NUMBER OF SEXUAL PARTNERS)

Comprehensive

• Focuses on sexual well being, consent, understanding/comfort of sexuality (ASSOCIATED WITH DELAYED SEXUAL ACTIVITY & REDUCED NUMBER OF SEXUAL PARTNERS)

Sex Positive

Talks about benefits of sex

What is the role of parents in how young people learn about sex? 

• Mothers are most often tasked with communicating information about sex to children

What are ways that parents can help/hinder healthy sexual development?

• Hinder- 

  • Using euphemisms for body parts 

  • Assume heterosexuality 

  • Rarely discuss pleasure 

  • Reinforce sex scripts (girl more info on gatekeeping, abstinence, purity)

• Help- 

  • Teaching proper names for genitals 

  • Teaching about pleasure/consent 

Describe the orgasm gap and identify explanations for this gap in heterosexual encounters. 

• Large orgasm gap between hetero men and women

• Women often feel pressure to fake orgasms 

• Self conscious about body and what is/is not expected of  you 

• Painful sex (vaginismus, pelvic floor dysfunction, insufficient lubrication, injury, sexual  trauma) 

Pluralistic ignorance

Misperception that other ppl are more sexually active/have more sexual partners than they are/do

Sexualization

sexuality is imposed on others, regarded as a sex object, and/or reduced to sexual appeal  or sexual behavior

What are the psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with sexualization and self-sexualization? 

Embracing sexuality publicly (for some) comes with feelings of empowerment, can increase self-esteem but can also lead to shame, body image concerns

Sexual configurations theory

recognizes sexuality as dynamic and multidimensional - gender/sex of partners and type of sexual interest (erotic + nurturance) -  includes your own gender/sex  identity relevant to sexuality and may change - more expansive around number of partners instead of assuming monogamous  duos 

What are the positive outcomes associated with fulfilling friendships? 

Increased life satisfaction, improved health and well-being, better academic achievement, mitigate negative effects of discrimination and help people navigate difficult times

Relational aggression

Damaging someone’s relationships and/or reputation.

What are the markers of a healthy relationship? 

• Sharing possessions, spending time together, showing affection both verbally & physically, engaging in both informal talk & deep talk, performing shared tasks, using  conflict management

Predictors of poor relationship outcomes?

• Monitoring partner’s location, ceding control to one’s partner, engaging in destructive conflict, spying on one’s partner, arousing jealousy, avoiding conflict/difficult conversations, cheating 

Demographic trends in marriage? (frequency of people getting married, age at first marriage).

• Majority will marry but number is going down (33% never married)  

• Cultural expectations around marriage and weddings ($$)

• “Giving away” daughters

What are the benefits of marriage? (physically, psychologically, financially, etc.)

Social support, better mental/physical health, increased earning, tax benefits, access to inheritance and social security, access to employer benefits, next of kin benefits

Rates of divorce in the US?

35% of first marriages, 60% of second marriages end in divorce

Describe gendered division of labor in heterosexual couples including the amount of time spent on household tasks and the type of tasks

• Women do more household labor than men by 1.7x

Routine labor

• tasks that have to be done frequently on a regular schedule (mainly tasked to women… 3.4x more) 

Low control labor

• tasks in which the person doing them has little control over when and where they get done (mainly tasked to women)

Intermittent labor

• tasks that are only done occasionally, and there’s usually some leeway as to when it needs to get done (mainly tasked to men)

Emotional labor

• comforting  others, navigating fights between kids, take care of people (mainly tasks to women)

Relative resource theory

social exchange and time availability (who brings in more $$), idea that women should do more work at home because they bring in less money. More resources brought home = less work at home.

Reproductive justice

fighting for true choice about reproduction and parenting (not just abortion)

Describe how structural violence can be seen in the healthcare system.

Poorer women less likely to receive prenatal care & suffer from more complications during birth and postpartum

Risk factors for pregnancy-related death?

• Care provider prejudice in decision making, lack of coordination between care providers, limitations in research on pregnancy and maternal health.

• NOT education level

What is the motherhood mandate for heterosexual women?

• Preoccupation with women’s fertility and expectation that pregnancy and motherhood are essential to womanhood. 

• “Women without children are selfish, having children is an

What are commonly cited reasons women give for seeking an abortion?

• Relationship conflict, financial stress, …

Typical attitude toward abortion in the US?

People should be able to have abortions with some restrictions.

What is the Turnaway Study? 

• Compares women who have abortions to those who wanted one but could not (were turned away) near a gestational limit 

What did the study’s findings reveal about financial and psychological consequences of having/being denied an abortion just after a gestational cutoff? 

Both groups had similar mental health outcomes after 5 years, those denied abortions had more mental health sx at 1 year out and more financial stress.

Infertility

not being pregnant after 12 months of trying 

What are the psychological outcomes associated with infertility?

• Can cause psychological stress, grief, shame, anger

Identify the main assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs)

IUI, IVF

Stratified reproduction

those with more resources have more autonomy and choices

Miscarriage

<20 weeks, physical symptoms, psychological symptoms (short and long term)

Stillbirth

>20 weeks, often sudden, intense physical and psychological responses (including delivery), about 1 out of 100 pregnancies 

About what percentage of pregnancies end in a miscarriage?

• About 1 in 6 pregnancies 

Describe how pregnancy affects the body

• Side effects- 

  • Morning sickness (85%), hyperemesis gravidarum (<3%), hemorrhoids, bleeding gums, urinary incontinence, insomnia, peripartum depression and anxiety, gestational diabetes, increased heart rate, etc.

• Body image- 

  • Conflicting research

Horizontal segregation

segregate in different occupations, salaries in female dominated professions are lower paid (teachers, nurses) in comparison to male dominated professions that require similar levels of skill and education, less gender integration in “blue collar” jobs vs. sticky floor

Vertical segregation

men more likely hold  leadership, management, and get higher pay in all fields (including female dominated professions)(glass escalator)

What happens when women move into formerly male dominated professions (law and medicine)? 

• The average salary and prestige of those professions declines.

What is the double bind women face in leadership positions? What does the phrase “think leader, think male” mean? 

When women embody these qualities they are seen as unlikeable, difficult to work with,  grasping, unattractive, etc. If she is likeable, she is not meeting stereotypes of a good leader.

Identify challenges negotiating salary and how salary negotiation relates to the pay gap.

Women are perceived more negatively than men when negotiating, don't negotiate as often

Understand the motherhood penalty for women’s earnings at work.

• Pregnancy and parenting-related gender discrimination in hiring and promotion

• Mothers more likely to be “default parent” which can hinder work involvement (called  when kid is sick)

• Mothers much more likely to leave workforce or go part time when children are young

Glass ceiling

Invisible barrier that stops many women from reaching high levels of leadership

Sticky floor

women more likely to be stuck at lower levels and in jobs with limited opportunities for advancement

Glass escalator

men advance faster in women dominated fields (educational leadership)

Glass cliff

organizations in distress more likely to promote women to high level position than when doing well

Quid pro quo

“this for that”

Hostile work environment

reating a persistent atmosphere at work that is offensive, intimidating, and hostile

Gender-based violence

violence motivated by anger and bias because of someone’s gender or sex

Structural Violence

• Social structures that hurt/disadvantage certain groups of people 

Rape culture

normalization of sexual violence, protecting perpetrators, and minimizing harm to victims/survivors

Rape myths

a false or stereotypical belief about how and why rape occurs  

Victim Blaming

type of blame that shifts responsibility away from the perpetrator and onto the survivor

Common Rape Myths

• People lie about being raped

• People are partially responsible for being raped based on their clothing and behavior 

• Sexual force is a normal aspect of male sexuality

Describe the relationship between objectification of women/girls and sexual violence

• Difficult to research due to ethical issues and social desirability

• Meta-analysis: observing + oversexualizedimages -> sexism and tolerance of sexual violence against girls and women

• Consistent correlation between objectification of women and tolerance of violence and acceptance of sexual coercion

What are the psychological outcomes after rape?

PTSD

What factors increase/protect risk for long-term psychological harm?

• Nature of assault 

• Previous trauma history  

• Negative reactions to disclosures 

• Response from police/social services 

Domestic Violence

anyone in the household

Intimate partner violence

specifically between people in an intimate relationship

Common Couple Violence

pops up irregularly, does not escalate to severe violence, not a pattern, spontaneous, more gender balanced

Coercive control violence

pattern that increases in severity, exert power and control through intimidation, domination, and control, may not involve physical violence if coercive control is strong enough, form of IPV (men most likely to be perpetrators)  

What stages make up the cycle of abuse?

1. Tensions Build (abuser creates tension and the survivor’s stress builds) 

2. Incident (abuser lashes out through physical, verbal, psychological, or sexual abuse tactics to dominate the survivor) 

3. Reconciliation (abuser makes excuses/attempts to apologize for the incident. Gaslighting is common, aka, “nothing happened”) 

4. Calm (things seem peaceful, maybe better than before. But often, this doesn’t last long before cycle starts over)

Elder abuse

abuse within a trusting relationship that causes harm to someone over 60 yrs old (sometimes 65 yrs) 

Define objectification theory and explain why self-objectification occurs according to this theory. Give an example that distinguishes between objectification and self-objectification. List at least two specific consequences of the tendency to self-objectify. 

• Objectification Theory: women are often seen as objects, and displaced from being seen as human. 

• Self-objectification occurs because women become preoccupied with their own bodies (and bodies of other women) 

• Body surveillance: viewing and evaluating your body from an observer’s perspective

• Consequences- 

  • Eating disorders, depression, sexual dysfunction, reduced cognitive performance

Define relational aggression and give an example. Explain two specific ways that social and cultural norms in the US encourage the use of relational aggression by girls and women. 

• Relational aggression: damaging others’ existing/potential relationships and/or social status (reputation) 

• Ex: spreading rumors about someone, cyberbullying (to spread false info), gossiping, social exclusion

• Ways norms in US encourage use by girls and women

Identify and describe the three primary explanations for the consistent gender wage gap despite greater numbers of women in the workplace and more awareness of gender discrimination. Make sure to identify and explain each phenomenon. Then, explain why each contributes to lower average wages for women compared to men. 

• Three primary explanations- 

  • Occupational segregation (horizontal and vertical) 

  • Salary negotiation (women negotiate less, and when they do they are perceived negatively) 

  • Motherhood penalty (“default parent”, more likely to leave job or go part time when child is young) 

Describe the design of the “Turnaway Study” including comparison groups. Identify at least 2 key findings related to financial and psychological outcomes for women who sought an abortion and were turned away due to gestational limits.

• Design- 

• Comparison groups

  • Women who got an abortion in first 13 weeks of pregnancy (used as control group for ↓) 

  • Women who got abortions within two weeks of an abortion clinics’ gestational limit (averaged at 20 week mark) 

  • Women who just barely missed the gestational limit and were denied abortion

• Findings- 

  • Both groups had similar mental health outcomes after 5 years 

  • Those denied abortions had more mental health symptoms at 1 year out and more financial stress 

  • Time of abortion 80% were still in relationship, by second year 60%, by fifth year 27%

  • Women denied abortions were more likely to be living alone with their children by fifth year 

  • Denied abortion group has nearly 8-% higher amounts of debt 30 days or more past due, 78% increase in things like bankruptcies/liens/evictions

Define sexual scripts. Describe 3 specific ways that traditional sexual scripts may contribute to women’s decreased physical pleasure during sex with a male partner.

• Sexual Scripts: descriptions of behaviors that reflect beliefs about “normal” sexual behavior in a culture

• Ways they contribute to women's decreased pleasure during sex- 

  • Centers around men’s experience and pleasure (begins with penile penetration and ends when male orgasms)

  • “Magically pleasurable” (don’t need to talk about or work at figuring out what feels good, something is wrong with you if you aren’t orgasming)

  • “Spontaneous” (talking about consent ‘ruins the mood’, can lead to unprotected sex) 

  • “Only for young people” 

An explanation for the prevalence of sexual violence is rape culture. Explain what is meant by rape culture in this context. Identify two common rape myths and summarize the findings from the textbook that contradict these myths. Then, give a specific example of how systems and organizations such as corporations, criminal justice/court procedures, and universities contribute to rape culture.

• Rape Culture: normalization of sexual violence, protecting perpetrators, and minimizing harm to victims/survivors

  • Doubt and self-blame among survivors 

  • Less accountability for perpetrators

• Common rape myths- 

  • People lie about being raped 

  • People are partially responsible for being raped based on their clothing and behavior 

  • Sexual force is a normal aspect of male sexuality 

• Myth contradictions- 

  • Only 0.05% to 7% of reported rapes are unsubstantiated/false 

  • Only person responsible for rape is the rapist 

  • No evidence supporting force as a normal aspect of male sexuality 

• Systems/organizations contributions to rape culture- 

  • College-

    • Risk higher in college (5x), 1 in 7-10 during first yr, 5-8% each yr 

  • Military- 

    • 23-30% of women report some form of SA in military 

  • Native American/American Indian women- 

    • Highest risk of sexual violence among all racial groups in US

  • Women with disabilities- 

    • Higher risk across different types of disabilities 

Identify facets of the PRESCRIPTION model and understand how media representations of romance influence individuals thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

• Partner is predestined 

  • Your ideal partner is out there 

• Right away, you know 

  • Love happens at first sight 

• Expression not necessary 

  • Ideal partner will just know what you’re thinking/feeling

• Sexual perfection

  • Sex with your soulmate is always easy & satisfying 

• Centerfolds preferred 

  • Women should look like models to attract their (male) partners 

• Role of gender (or “real men”) 

  • Men should be taller, more powerful, richer, and older than partner 

• Into a prince (from beast) 

  • Love can change a man into an ideal partner (CORE BELIEF IN US)

• Pugilism = passion 

  • Fighting is a sign of  love and passion

• Totally opposite values 

  • Love will overcome differences in values 

• Incomplete without mate 

  • Your ideal partner completes you & fulfills your needs

• Often, actors = roles 

  • Actors are just like the characters they portray

• Not real/no effect

  • Not affected by media portrayals of romance because you know they’re not “real”

• Impacts of overconsumption of romantic media include unrealistic beliefs about relationships, decreased satisfaction in viewers’ romantic relationships, greater conflict in romantic relationships