Exam #1

anatomy

the structure of an organism

applied anatomy

also known as clinical anatomy; application of anatomical study; treatment & diagnosis of a disease

descriptive anatomy

description of individual body parts; no reference to disease

pathological anatomy

changes in structures & how they relate to different types of diseases

physiology

the study of the function of the living organism and its parts, as well as the chemical processes involved

midsaggital plane

cuts the body in right and left halves

transverse planes

cuts upper and lower halves of the body

frontal plane (coronal)

results in front and back portions of the body

anterior (ventral)

front surface of the body

posterior (dorsal)

toward the back

rostral

towards the head

epithelial tissue

superficial (outer) layer of mucous membranes and the cells making up the skin (surface covering of body and linings of cavities/passageways); provides a barrier, like skin

connective tissue

composed of intercellular material, known as the matrix, to which the cells are bound, can be solid, liquid, gel-like; supports and protects

muscular tissue

contractile tissue; capable of being stimulated to contract; consists of voluntary (striated), involuntary (smooth), and cardiac muscle

nervous tissue

highly specialized communicative tissue; consists of neurons that take on a variety of forms; transmits info between neurons, sensory receptors

tissue aggregates

conjunction/collection of different tissues into a mass

fascia

sheet-like membrane surrounding organs

ligaments

bind organs together or holds bones to bones or cartilage

tendons

attach muscle to bone or cartilage

bones

along with cartilage provide the structure for the body, articulating by means of joints

joints

the union of bones with other bones, or cartilage with other cartilage

axial skeleton

the part of the skeleton that includes the skull and spinal column and sternum and ribs
- 80 bones

appendicular skeleton

the part of the skeleton that includes the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle and the upper and lower limbs
- 126 bones

origin

point of attachment; least amount of movement

insertion

point of attachment; moves as a result of muscle contraction

striated muscles

also known as skeletal muscle because it is the muscle used to move skeletal structures; voluntary/conscious control

smooth muscles

muscular tissue of the digestive tract and blood vessels, involuntary control

cardiac muscles

composed of cells that connect in a net-like fashion

agonists

muscles that move a structure

antagonists

muscles that oppose movement

synergists

muscles that stabilize structures

respiratory system

breathing for speech

phonatory system

production of voiced sounds

articulatory/resonatory system

used to alter the characteristics of the sounds fo speech

nervous system

related to the central nervous system's control of speech process

respiration

the exchange of gas between organism and its environment; requires muscular effort; goal is oxygenation of blood and elimination of carbon dioxide

respiratory system functions

- supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide
- filters the air we breathe in
- assists in producing sound
- contains receptors for smell
- rids the body of some excess water and heat
- helps regulate blood pH

Boyle's Law

all forces in nature seek balance and equilibrium
- forms the basis for movement of air into and out of the lungs
- if you decrease the volume the air pressure will increase

vertebral column

33 segments of bone with a rich set of fossa & protuberances designed for function; supports ribs, houses spinal column, helps with movements

cervical vertebrae

C1-C7

superior articular facet

aids some movement; connects vertebrae together

spinous process

attachment for muscles

vertebral foramen

opening for spinal cord

corpus (CV)

body

transverse process

attachment for muscles

C1

atlas

C2

axis

7 true ribs

direct attachment to the sternum

3 false ribs

indirectly attach to the sternum

2 floating ribs

do not attach to the sternum

Ribs

elevate during inspiration

Sternum

3 components:
- manubrium
- corpus
- xiphoid process

Manubrium

attachment for clavicle & 1st rib

Corpus (S)

attachment for 5 more ribs

Xipohoid process

anterior most attachment of diaphragm

respiratory mucosa

a layer of cells that secrete mucus; found in nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx & trachea, can trap contaminants

Nose

- provides an airway for respiration, moistens and warms entering air, filters and cleans inspired air, resonating chamber for speech, detects odors in the air stream
- internal nares, external nares, nasal conchae

Internal nares

opening to exterior

external nares

opening to pharynx

nasal conchae

folds in the mucous membrane that increase air turbulence and ensures that most air contacts the mucous membranes

pharynx

- common space used by both the respiratory and digestive systems
- originates posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and extends inferiorly near the level of the bifurcation of the larynx and esophagus
- common pathway for both air and food
- force swallowed food into the esophagus
- nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

lower respiratory tract

- conducting airways
- respiratory portion of the respiratory system

conducting airways

- trachea
- bronchi
- up to terminal bronchioles

respiratory portion of the respiratory system

- respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- alveoli

trachea

flexible tube; 11 cm; 15-20 c-shaped tracheal cartilages; starts @ end of larynx; becomes left & right bronchi @ carina; lined by cilia

larynx

"voice box," prevents swallowed materials from entering the lower respiratory tract (reflexive cough); conducts air into the lower respiratory tract; produces sounds; 9 pieces of cartilage

sound production

- inferior ligaments = true vocal folds
- superior ligaments = vestibular folds/false vocal folds

bronchial tree

- a highly branched system of air-conducting passages that originate from the left and right primary bronchi
- terminate in terminal bronchioles
- foreign bronchioles are more likely to lodge in the primary bronchus

alveoli

small air sacs; each lung contains approx. 300-400 million

gas exchange

can take place in the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts

lungs

- apex - projects superiorly to a point that is slightly superior and posterior to the clavicle, top portion
- base rests upon the muscular diaphragm

left lung

- divided into 2 lobes by oblique fissure
- smaller than right lung (to fit in cardiac region)
- cardiac notch accommodates the heart

right lung

- divided into 3 lobes by oblique and horizontal fissure
- located more superiorly in the body due to liver on the right side

pleura

the outer surface of each lung and the adjacent internal thoracic wall are lined with this serous membrane

visceral pleura

the outer surface of each lung is tightly covered by this

pleural cavity

the potential space between the serous membrane layers

pleural effusion

occurs when fluid that accumulates between the two pleural layers; this can impair breathing by limiting the expansion of the lungs

pneumothorax

abnormal collection of air or gas in the pleural space that separates the lung from the chest wall; may interfere with normal breathing

quiet inspiration

needs only one muscle
- elastic recoil: after muscles are stretched they recoil to their pre-stretched position

forced inspiration

calls on many more muscles

diaphragm

primary muscle of inspiration
- divides the thoracic from the abdominal cavity
- increases the vertical dimension of the thorax and provides for inhalation
- muscles radiate out from central tendon

external intercostals

- raise the ribs
- significant for speech

parasternal portion of internal intercostals

helps elevate and slightly rotate ribs when expands

levator costarum

elevates ribs

serratus posterior superior

elevates ribs 2-5; upper ribcage of rib cage

sternocleidomastoid

- elevation of chin
- helps elevate sternum and anterior portion of rib cage

scalenes (anterior, middle, posterior)

- stabilizes head; facilitates rotation
- elevate first and second ribs

checking action

requires the recruiting of the intra-abdominal muscles which allows you to control the release of air and release it little by little

transverse abdominus

acts as antagonist to diaphragm

external oblique

lowers ribs; antagonist to diaphragm

internal oblique

lowers ribs

rectus abdominus

lowers ribs; powerful vertical muscle

quadratus lumborum

draws 12th ribs downwards

passive expiration

we let the forces inherent to the tissues restore the system to a resting position after inspiration (driven by forces of elasticity and gravity); natural restorative processes

active expiration

we use muscular effort to push the air out of the lungs; involvement of the muscles

elasticity

- 1/2 active forces in passive expiration
- lungs are highly elastic, porous, sponge-like tissue
- tend to expand as soon as compression is released, volume increases

gravity

- when standing/sitting upright, gravity acts on ribs to pull them back after they expanded
- also works to maximize overall capacity by pulling abdominal viscera down, leaving more room for lungs

gas exchange

1) ventilation
2) distribution
3) perfusion
4) diffusion

ventilation

actual movement of air in the conducting respiratory pathway

distribution

air is distributed to the alveoli