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Social psychology is

the branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by others.

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982) establishes

equality before and under the law and equal protection and benefits of the law.

Overall, hate crimes based on \___________ constituted 44 percent of all hate crimes.

race or ethnicity

\___________ are the most common target of racially oriented hate crimes.

Black Canadians

In 2018, the \_______________ populations were the most frequent targets of hate crimes based on religion

Jewish and Muslim

Hate crimes based on sexual orientation comprised \__ percent of all hate crimes

9

The victims of hate crimes toward Indigenous persons tend to be \__________ than those of any other group targeted because of race or ethnicity

younger

Social psychologists study how

people are affected by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

Our perceptions and impressions of others are affected by a variety of factors including

physical appearance, specifically the face

Solomon Asch (1946) demonstrated the importance that what he called central traits can have on

the impressions we form of others.

When you interact with people, you're constantly engaged in person perception which is

the process of forming impressions of others.

Impressions are often inaccurate because of

the many biases and fallacies that occur in person perception.

One study, focusing on the Big Five personality traits, found that attractive women were viewed as more

agreeable, extraverted, conscientious, open to experience, and emotionally stable (lower in neuroticism)

Research findings suggest that little correlation exists between attractiveness and

personality traits

Based on a brief glance at someone's face, people routinely draw inferences about the person's

personality, social dominance, and sexual orientation

Even three- to four-year-old children make character judgments based on

faces that resemble judgments made by adults.

Our reactions to faces may have

evolutionary roots

Schemas are

cognitive structures that guide information processing

Social schemas are

organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people.

Self-schema is

an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about one's behaviour in a given domain

Your own self-schemas affect how you

process information about others in terms of that domain

If you do not have a self-schema relevant to a particular domain, you are referred to as being \____________ in that domain

aschematic

\_____________ are special types of schemas that may be part of their shared membership in a particular group

Stereotypes

Stereotypes are widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of

their membership in a particular group

The most common stereotypes in our society are those based on

sex, age, and membership in ethnic or occupational groups.

Gender stereotypes label women as

emotional, submissive, illogical, and passive

Gender stereotypes label men as

unemotional, dominant, logical, and aggressive.

Age stereotypes suggest that elderly people are

slow, feeble, rigid, forgetful, and asexual.

Examples of common ethnic stereotypes are the notions that Germans are

methodical

Examples of common ethnic stereotypes are the notions that Italians are

passionate

Occupational stereotypes suggest that lawyers are

manipulative

Occupational stereotypes suggest that accountants are

conforming

Occupational stereotypes suggest that artists are

moody

We show a tendency to associate skin colour and

negativity

Stereotyping is a \____________ process that is frequently automatic and that saves on the time and effort required to get a handle on people individually

cognitive

Stereotypes frequently are \__________________ that ignore the diversity within social groups and foster inaccurate perceptions of people

broad overgeneralizations

Our perception of others is also subject to \___________________ in effect, creating what we expect to see.

self- fulfilling prophecy

Illusory correlation occurs when people estimate

that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually seen.

Evolutionary psychologists argue that some of the biases seen in social perception were

adaptive in humans' ancestral environment

Evolutionary psychologists assert that humans are programmed by evolution to immediately classify people as

members of an ingroup, or an outgroup

Members of an ingroup means a group that

one belongs to and identifies with

Members of an outgroup means a group that

one does not belong to or identify with.

Evolutionary psychologists ascribe much of the bias in person perception to cognitive mechanisms that have been shaped by \_____________

natural selection.

\______________ are inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behaviour, and their own behaviour.

Attributions

Internal attributions ascribe the causes of behaviour to

personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings.

External attributions ascribe the causes of behaviour to

situational demands and environmental constraints.

Traditional model of attribution

behaviour is caused by internal or external attribution

Alternative two step model of attribution

behaviour is caused by internal attribution is the automatic first step and the external attribution is the effortful second step.

Fundamental attribution error refers to

observers' bias in favour of internal attributions in explaining others' behaviour.

Actor-observer bias, actors favour\____________ attributions for their behaviour, whereas observers are more likely to explain the same behaviour with \__________ attributions

external, internal

The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute one's successes to \____________ factors and one's failures to \___________ factors

personal, situational

The defensive attribution is the tendency to blame

victims for their misfortunes, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way.

Weiner's model of attribution- "They won only because the best two athletes on Ottawa's team were out with injuries—talk about good fortune!"

unstable external cause

Weiner's model of attribution- "They won because they have some of the best talent in the country."

stable internal cause

Weiner's model of attribution- "Anybody could win in this province; the competition is far below average in comparison to the rest of the country."

stable external cause

Weiner's model of attribution- "They won because they put in a great deal of last-minute effort and practice, and they were incredibly fired up for the regional tourney after last year's near miss."

unstable internal cause

Individualism involves putting

personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships.

Collectivism involves putting

group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one's identity in terms of the groups one belongs to (such as one's family, tribe, work group, social class, and caste)

Type of bias- "I absolutely won't consider the fellow who arrived 30 minutes late for his interview. Anybody who can't make a job interview on time is either irresponsible or hopelessly disorganized. I don't care what he says about the airline messing up his reservations."

fundamental attribution error

Type of bias- "You know, I was very, very impressed with the young female applicant, and I would love to hire her, but every time we add a young woman to the faculty in liberal arts, she gets pregnant within the first year." The committee chairperson, who has heard this line from this professor before replies, "You always say that, so I finally did a systematic check of what's happened in the past. Of the last 14 women hired in liberal arts, only one has become pregnant within a year."

illusionary correlation effect

Type of bias- "The first one I want to rule out is the guy who's been practising law for the last ten years. Although he has an excellent background in political science, I just don't trust lawyers. They're all ambitious, power-hungry, manipulative cutthroats. He'll be a divisive force in the department."

stereotyping

Type of bias- "I say we forget about the two candidates who lost their faculty slots in the massive financial crisis at Western Polytechnic last year. I know it sounds cruel, but they brought it on themselves with their fiscal irresponsibility over at Western. Thank goodness we'll never let anything like that happen around here. As far as I'm concerned, if these guys couldn't see that crisis coming, they must be pretty dense."

defensive attribution

Interpersonal attraction refers to

positive feelings toward another

The matching hypothesis proposes that

males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners.

When someone is more attractive than their mate, others desire to

mate poach or lure the person in question away from their current partner.

if someone is less attractive than their partner, others desire to

mate choice copy, meaning their sexual preferences are influenced by the choices that others have made

Attraction can foster similarity because people who are close gradually modify their attitudes in ways that make them more congruent, a phenomenon called \____________

attitude alignment.

Reciprocity involves

liking those who show that they like us.

We tend to like those who

show that they like us

We tend to see others as liking us more if

we like them

Two early pioneers in research on love were

Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid

Early pioneers in love research proposed that romantic relationships are characterized by two kinds of love

passionate love and companionate love

Passionate love is

a complete absorption in another that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotion.

Companionate love is

warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one's own.

Passionate love is a powerful motivational force that produces profound changes in people's

thinking, emotion, and behaviour

Companionate love is more strongly related to

relationship satisfaction

The distinction between passionate and companionate love has been further refined by Robert Sternberg who subdivides companionate love into

intimacy and commitment.

Intimacy refers to

warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship.

Commitment is

an intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise.

Sternberg proposes that love can be understood in when divided into three components

passion, intimacy, and commitment.

Passion can lead to

infatuation

Intimacy can lead to

liking

commitment can lead to

empty love

Intimacy and passion result in

romantic love

Passion and commitment lead to

fatuous love

Intimacy and commitment leads to

companionate love

Intimacy, Passion and Commitment leads to

Consummate love

similarities have been seen when research has focused on what people look for in

prospective mates

Some things people look for in prospective mates are

mutual attraction, kindness, and intelligence

Evolutionary psychologists assert that physical appearance is an influential determinant of attraction because certain aspects of good looks can be indicators of

sound health, good genes, and high fertility, all of which can contribute to reproductive potential

Evolutionary analyses also make some interesting predictions about how women's menstrual cycles may influence their

mating preferences and tactics.

When women are in mid-cycle approaching ovulation—that is, when they are most fertile—their preferences shift to favour men who exhibit

masculine facial and bodily features, attractiveness, and dominance

Women's mating strategies also change when their fertility is at its peak, as they tend to

wear more provocative clothing and they are more flirtatious in the presence of attractive men

The cognitive component of an attitude is made up of

the beliefs people hold about the object of an attitude

The affective component of an attitude consists of

the emotional feelings stimulated by an object of thought.

The behavioural component of an attitude consists of

predispositions to act in certain ways toward an attitude object

Attitudes are

positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought.

Attitudes vary along several crucial dimensions. These include their

strength, accessibility, and ambivalence

Strong attitudes are generally viewed as

firmly held (resistant to change), that are durable over time, and that have a powerful impact on behaviour

The accessibility of an attitude refers to

how often one thinks about it and how quickly it comes to mind.