General science: human body

__ consist of those larger compounds from which we derive the calories, or energy, necessary to sustain life functions.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (or fats) are the macronutrients from which our energy is derived.

Macronutrients

__both simple and complex, can be thought of as immediate and readily accessible energy.

These molecules are ultimately broken down into glucose and circulated throughout the blood to support metabolic functions.

Carbohydrates

The body converts and stores unused carbohydrates as ___. function as the source material for hormones. They enable better absorption of micronutrients, and they also serve as an energy source.

lipids, or fats.

__are necessary for cellular growth, repair, and transport. They are made up of amino acids, which can be thought of as micronutrients.

Proteins

__consist of those vitamins and minerals required by the body to function properly.

these nutrients are only required in small amounts; however, they are not insignificant.

If adequate amounts of these __ are not acquired, overall health is potentially compromised, and long-term issues may arise.

micronutrients

___ (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K) are present in foods with__and do not dissolve in water.

Fat-soluble vitamins

___ (such as the B vitamins) are dissolved in __ and carried around the body but are not stored.

Water-soluble vitamins

__ are found in food that we consume and are essential for cells to function properly. Common are magnesium, potassium, sodium, and calcium.

Minerals

___is an essential molecule needed for all cellular functions and makes up between 60 and 80 percent of our body mass.

In its absence, the metabolic reactions that occur in our body would not be able to exist.

Water

___is a plant derivative that cannot be broken down by the body and is essential for bowel health and function.

It works by bulking up the stool and allowing for easier passage throughout the body.

This can be found in foods such as berries, whole grains, and apples, or as an over-the-counter supplement.

Fiber

Vitamin A:

• Function: Vision, immune function

• Deficiency: Night blindness, dry eyes, poor immunity

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine):

• Function: Energy metabolism

• Deficiency: Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin):

• Function: Energy production, cell function

• Deficiency: Cracked lips, sore throat, inflammation of mouth

Vitamin B3 (Niacin):

• Function: Metabolism, skin, nerves

• Deficiency: Pellagra (diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia)

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine):

• Function: Protein metabolism, brain development

• Deficiency: Anemia, depression, confusion

Vitamin B9 (Folate/Folic Acid):

• Function: DNA synthesis, pregnancy support

• Deficiency: Neural tube defects, anemia
  

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin):

• Function: Nerve function, red blood cell formation

• Deficiency: Pernicious anemia, nerve damage

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid):

• Function: Immune support, collagen synthesis

• Deficiency: Scurvy (bleeding gums, bruising, fatigue)

Vitamin D:

• Function: Bone health, calcium absorption

• Deficiency: Rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults

Vitamin E:

• Function: Antioxidant, cell protection

• Deficiency: Nerve and muscle damage, vision problems

Vitamin K:

• Function: Blood clotting

• Deficiency: Excessive bleeding, bruising

Calcium:

• Function: Bone/teeth strength, muscle function

• Deficiency: Osteoporosis, muscle cramps

Iron:

• Function: Hemoglobin formation

• Deficiency: Iron-deficiency anemia (fatigue, weakness)

Magnesium:

• Function: Muscle/nerve function, bone health

• Deficiency: Muscle spasms, mental disorders

Potassium:

• Function: Fluid balance, nerve signals

• Deficiency: Weakness, irregular heartbeat, muscle cramps

Sodium:

• Function: Fluid balance, nerve function

• Deficiency (rare): Hyponatremia (headache, confusion, fatigue)

Zinc:

• Function: Immune function, wound healing

• Deficiency: Hair loss, poor wound healing, reduced taste/smell

Iodine:

• Function: Thyroid hormone production

• Deficiency: Goiter, hypothyroidism

The ___is a collection of bones, composed of a very hard and inflexible phosphate, and cartilage, composed of spongy, flexible collagen.

functions as structural support and protection for muscles and organs. It also facilitates locomotion. Blood is created inside of bone marrow.

human skeletal system

The ___ works in conjunction with the skeletal system to facilitate motion.

muscular system

The muscular system is made up of three types of muscle:

cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, and smooth muscle.

The heart is made of ___ that is involved in regulating contraction and relaxation of the heart.

cardiac muscle

___ are those connected to bone that enable motion.

Skeletal muscles

___ lines organs and aids in digestion.

Smooth muscle

___ is a process performed by living organisms that allows for the exchanging of gases between one’s internal and external environment. Cells use these gases as a way to obtain energy for cell processes to take place.

Respiration

Cellular respiration can occur with or without . In aerobic processes (those that involve oxygen), is converted into energy in the form of ATP. In human respiration this is the gas that we inhale.

oxygen

is the gas that oxygen is exchanged for in respiration and therefore the gas that we exhale.

Carbon dioxide

This is the gas phase of water. It occurs as liquid water is evaporated or solid water (ice) undergoes ___

sublimation

The ___ allows for both inhalation and exhalation of air via respiration.

nose

This is the air-filled space behind the nose.

Nasal cavity

The ___ (also known as the throat) is the structure behind the nose and the mouth that connects them to the esophagus. Its main function is to receive and allow for the transmission of air to the lungs and food to the stomach.

pharynx

This is the flap behind the tongue that ensures that air goes to the lungs and food goes to the stomach. At rest, the __ sits upright and flips over one way or the other, depending whether food or air enters the mouth/nose.

epiglottis

The __ (also known as the windpipe) is a passageway for air to get moist and warm as it makes its way to the lungs.

trachea

The trachea branches into the left and right bronchi. The __ are responsible for transporting air that has come through the windpipe to the lungs.

bronchi

After air leaves the left and right bronchi, it dumps into the left and right lungs, respectively. The ___ are spongy organs that can be broken down into smaller divisions to allow for gas exchange to occur.

lungs

Also known as “little bronchi”, these are smaller branches that the left and right bronchi divide into.

Bronchioles

These are tiny air sacs that branch off from the bronchioles where gas exchange occurs in the lungs.

Alveoli

These are tiny blood vessels that serve as a connection point between arterioles and venules, allowing nutrients to be transferred between blood and tissues

Capillaries

The __ is a skeletal muscle that sits below the lungs. As you inhale, the diaphragm contracts and flattens to allow your lungs to fill with more air. As you exhale the diaphragm relaxes so air can be pushed out of the lungs.

diaphragm

The __ is responsible for the transport of blood and nutrients throughout the body. It is made up of arteries, veins, capillaries, the lungs, the heart, the brain, and the kidneys.

circulatory system

The ___ functions to pump oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs to become oxygenated. Blood flows through the arteries and veins along with other nutrients, while delivering oxygen to cells throughout the body and carbon dioxide to the lungs to be eliminated.

heart

facilitate oxygenation,

Red blood cells

aid in immunologic defense

White blood cells

The liquid medium inside of the circulatory system

Plasma

also aid in defense.

Platelets

These are the two receiving chambers of the heart. They appear on both the left and right sides of the heart above the ventricles.

Atrium/atria

These are the two pumping chambers of the heart. They appear on both the left and right sides of the heart below the atria.

Ventricles

The ___ vena cava drains the upper part of the body while the ___ vena cava drains the lower half of the body. Both of these dump deoxygenated blood into the right atrium.

superior; inferior

This is responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

Pulmonary artery

This is responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

Pulmonary vein

This is the largest artery in the body. Oxygenated blood will leave the heart through the aorta to be sent throughout the whole body.

Aorta

This is a blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart. You can think “A” and “Away”. typically carry oxygenated blood with the exception of the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood.

Artery

Also known as “little arteries,” these are small branches off the arteries that connect arteries to capillaries.

Arterioles

A___ is a blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart. typically carry deoxygenated blood with the exception of the pulmonary vein, which carries oxygenated blood.

vein

There are four valves of the heart

the bicuspid (mitral) valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, and pulmonary valve

The ___ valves are also known as the atrioventricular (AV) valves as these are the two valves that separate the atria from the ventricles.

tricuspid and bicuspid

The __valve connects the left ventricle to the aorta

aortic

the __ valve connects the right ventricle to the lungs.

pulmonary

This is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration.

Diffusion

Also known as “little veins”, these are small branches off the veins that connect veins to capillaries.

Venules

There are four main blood types:

A, B, AB, and O.

These are what the cells recognize as “self”. For example, if someone has a blood type A, they will have A antigens on the surface of their red blood cells. If they have AB blood, then they will have both A and B antigens. O blood is the absence of any antigens.

Antigens

is an inherited protein that is found on the surface of red blood cells. Presence of this protein makes you Rh positive, and absence of this protein makes you Rh negative.

Rhesus (Rh) factor

The universal blood donor is ___ since there are no antigens on the surface of its cells.

blood type O

The universal blood recipient is __ since there are both A and B antigens on the surface of its cells.

blood type AB

The ___ functions to break food down into usable micro and macronutrients. Upon ingestion of food, the digestive process begins.

digestive system

The saliva in our mouths contains __ that begin breaking down food.

enzymes

___, or chewing, helps reduce the food to a bolus that is easy to swallow.

Mastication

The ___ primarily serves to absorb the nutrients from the chyme before passing it on to the large intestine (colon).

small intestine

In the ___, further absorption of nutrients and water takes place, before passing the remaining matter, termed feces, to the rectum where it is excreted through the anus.

large intestine

The ___ serves to expel waste, primarily urine, from the body. This system helps maintain homeostasis through the regulation of internal fluids. Its major components are: kidneys, lungs, skin, ureter, urethra, and the urinary bladder.

excretory system

The ___ function to remove waste from the bloodstream through a filtration system resulting in the production of urine.

kidneys

The__, in addition to providing oxygenated blood, remove carbon dioxide from the blood.

lungs

The __ is the organ through which perspiration (sweat) is released. It plays a minor role in excretion; its primary role is temperature regulation.

skin

The __ all work in conjunction to remove and expel urine from the body.

ureter, urethra, and urinary bladder

This is an enzyme found in the mouth that is responsible for the initial breakdown of starches from complex carbohydrates to monosaccharides (simple sugars).

Salivary amylase

also known as stomach acid, is the acidic fluid within the stomach. The pH of the stomach lies between 1 and 3 and is essential for activating digestive enzymes as well as breaking down proteins.

Gastric acids

is an enzyme found in the stomach that breaks down proteins into polypeptides.

Pepsin

The __ is an organ found below the liver. One of its main functions is to produce enzymes that break down food into a usable form for our body.

pancreas

responsible for breaking down fats.

lipase

similar to salivary amylase, is responsible for breaking down starches.

amylase

allows for the digestion of protein.

trypsin

The __ is a large organ that is situated on the right side of the abdomen. It serves as producer of bile, metabolizer of nutrients, and an enzyme activator. It also helps with the excretion of drugs and hormones.

liver

is a green-brown fluid that is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It functions to carry wastes away and break down fats.

Bile

The __ enables communication between cells throughout the body. Its major components are the brain, the spinal cord, and neurons, or nerve cells.

nervous system

The __acts as the central information processing unit of the body. It is composed of many billion neurons and it is where information received by the senses is processed.

brain

wo hemispheres (left and right) and three major parts:

the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.

The __, the largest portion of the brain, is responsible for numerous things such as (but not limited to) speech, judgment, problem-solving, and emotions.

cerebrum

Involved in personality, emotion, and higher-level thinking. 

Frontal lobe

Processes sensory information, including touch, pain, and temperature. 

Parietal lobe