Bio103 Fall Final

covers topics: Nov.7- end

Cells are arranged in a hierarchical system

1. Individual Cell

2. Tissue

3. Organ

4. Organ System

What is Tissue

• unite of many similar cells that perform a function together

  • e.g.)  Enterocytes → Small intestine cells that absorb sugar

What is an Organ

•  Structure of several different kinds of tissues, which work as a group

  • e.g.)  Stomach → Is large collection of acid-producing, muscle, and nerve cells

What is Organ System

• Organ System = Organs + Tissues

  • e.g.)  Cardiovascular system → Heart, veins, arteries, and lungs

What are the four basic type of cells

• Muscles

• Nerve cells

• Epithelial cells

• Connective Tissues

Epithelial cells are what?

• Categorized by shape and function

Examples of Epithelial cells

• Simple squamous cells = Line your lungs

  • Thin shaped 

• Simple cuboidal cells = Line kidney tubes

• Simple columnar cells = Line small intestine

  • Very long cells

  • Absorb sugar, small amino acids, vitamins, etc.

• Stratified squamous cells

Connective tissues are what?

• Function as a matrix (mesh) that forms and holds tissues in place

Examples of Connective tissues

• Loose connective tissue = Holds skin in place

• Adipose tissue cells = Fat 

• Fibrous connective tissue = Bundles of collagen fibers

• Cartilage = White strong flexible connective tissue

  
  

Two types of adipose tissue cells

• White adipose cell

• Brown adipose cell

White Adipose Cell

• 20% of body weight → Stores energy + insulation for organs → too much white fat leads to obesity

Brown Adipose Cell

1% of body weight → Important for brown fat + blood sugar control + body temperature

3 types of Fibrous connective tissue

• Tendons

• Ligaments

• ACL

Purpose of Digestion

• Breakdown of food through chemical digestions

• Converts food to molecules that the intestinal epithelial cells can breakdown

• Males digest food faster than females

Four steps of digestion in order

• Ingestion

• Digestion

• Absorption

• Elimination

Process of Ingestion

• The Breakdown of food via mechanical method (chewing) allows food to be broken down in smaller sizes

• Human mouth contains two types of saliva to further break down food

Two types of saliva’s and their purpose

• Amylase = Gene that mutated in most humans to copy multiple times which helps break down complex carbohydrates (large chain glucose molecules)

• Lipase = Aids in the breakdown of fat

Process of Digestion

• Utilization of acid digestion to dissolve food

  • Hydrochloric acid (HCl) = Created and released by cells in stomach

• In the presence of water, enzymes, and HCl gurgling around in the stomach, protein polymers are slowly broken down into monomers

• Mucus lines the stomach in order to prevent acid from eating away at it

  • Ulcers are caused by Helicobacter pylori bacteria

Prosses of Absorption

• Occurs in the small intestine which contains three sections (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) 

First Section of the Small Intestine

• Duodenum

  • First 10-15 inches of the small intestine which contains digestive enzymes (last stages of digestion) released by the bile and pancreas 

Middle Section of the Small Intestine

• Called the Jejunum

  • The 8 foot long middle section of the small intestine which specializes on the absorption of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fructose, vitamins, irons, fatty acids) 

End Section of the Small Intestines

• Called the Ileum

  • The 10 foot final section of the small intestine which absorbs certain vitamins

    • Mainly absorbs vitamin B and water-soluble vitamins

Prosses of Elimination

• Occurs in the large intestine (colon), which specializes in the absorption of water (Large intestine = 5 ft. long, 3 in. in diameter)

  • The large intestine reabsorbs roughly 90% of fluid

  • Undigested material = Feces

Second Brain

Known as the Gut

• Located in the enteric nervous system

• 12 different kinds of neurons in nervous system

IBS is?

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

• Isolated in large intestines

Crohn’s Disease is?

Chronic inflammatory disease

• Thickening of intestinal walls

Celiac Disease is?

Autoimmune disease triggered by gluten

Lactose Intolerance is?

Lack of lactase/lactose

• lactose breaks down into glucose

Immune system definition

specializes in protecting the body from foreign invaders

• (bacteria, viruses, parasites, allergens, fungi, cancer cells, old cells, and damaged/mutated cells)

Two Immune system “arms”

• Non-specific (immediate) inflammatory response 

• Specific (delayed) immune response

General names of immune cells

• White Blood Cells (WBCs)= Leukocytes

• Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

6 types of white blood cells

• Mast Cells

• Neutrophils

• Monocytes

• Lymphocytes

• Eosinophils

• Basophils

Bacterial Proteins

allow the bacteria to “lock and key” on cell proteins

Red Blood Cells

• When there is no infection occurring, RBC rates should be approximately 4.7-6.1 million cells/liter

Peristalsis

series of wave-like muscle contractions that moves food through the digestive track

• starts in the esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → anus

Cheese Burger vs. Sulfuric Acid

Where RBCs & WBCs are made

They are made within Bone Marrow

• bone marrow makes all RBC & some WBC

Why are WBC important

• they can move

• they consume foreign invader

Brain facts

• Brain is only about 2% of the average human's body weight

• Despite this, the brain receives 28% of resting oxygen

Three areas of the brain

Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain

Hindbrain

• connects the spinal cord

  • Cerebellum = Coordinates body movement

  • Pons = Huge conduit of nerve fibers

  Medulla Oblongata = Contains all non-voluntary reflexes (e.g. breathing)

Midbrain

• The Brainstem

Forebrain

• Classic image of the brain (grey wrinkled part)

  • holds grey matter

Grey matter

All neuron cell bodies

White matter

• All axons (myelin sheath)

  • within the interior of the brain

Cerebrum

• mix of grey and white matter

When brain swells what occurs

•  many neurons die

  • surgeons remove the skull cap temporarily to allow brain to swell and expand without risk permanent damage

Reflexes are

Involuntary instantaneous movement (e.g. knee-jerk reflex)

The three main neurons involved in reflexed

• Sensory neuron

• Interneuron

• Motor Neuron

Portions of the eye

• Retina

• Rods

• Cones

• Sensory adaptions

Retina

• Contain photoreceptors which detects light and color 

Rods

• Sensitive to dim light

Cones

Three colors

• red

• blue

• green

Sensory Adaptions to the eye

• Process of getting used to uncomfortable sensations

Brain has two hemispheres

Left and Right

• separated by axons

There are 4 lobes within the brain

• Occipital lobe

• Parietal lobe

• Temporal lobe

• Frontal lobe

(In addition is the Cerebellum)

Occipital lobe

• Visual center

Parietal Lobe

• Multisensory

• Speach

• Reading

Temporal lobe

• Auditory cortex

Frontal lobe

• Last place for new neurons up till ~25 years old

  • Prefrontal cortex

    • Personality/ behavior

Lobotomy

•  Mashup prefrontal cortex due to illegal and inhumane medical practice

Phagocytosis does what

•  The consumption of foreign invaders in the body by WBCs

  • WBCs are able to recognize foreign invaders by differentiating the infectant from proteins

Normal Flora

• Bacteria or Fungi that belong and line the exterior of the body

  • will not cause disease

Bacteria

• Bacteria is always Prokaryotic meaning no membrane inside (DNA is floating free)

  • Single Celled

  • Pili= hair-like tentacles that allow them to stick to surfaces

How bacteria reproduce

• asexually

• the sex pilus is designed to pass on the circular plasmid

Circular Plasmid

•  DNA which is typically antibiotic resistant

  • Bacterial protein mutates into a different shape so penicillin cannot recognize it

• Transferred between bacteria when sex pili touch

Category’s of Bacteria

• Rods

• Coccus

• Spirochete

Category; Rod

• Cylinder Shape

  • E. coli 

  • Clostridium botulinum 

  • C. Tetani

  • Yersinia pestis

Category; Coccus

• Tiny circles grouped together

  • Staphylococcus

  • Streptococcus

  • Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Category; Spirochete

• long squiggly line

  • Borrelia

  • Treponema pallidum

How to get bacteria infection

• Ingestion

• Open wounds 

• Nose

• Inanimate objects

Ways bacteria spread disease

• 1. Attachment

  • the Pili of bacteria will attach to cell proteins

• 2. Secretion

  • secreting either endotoxins or exotoxins

What do endotoxins do

•  Punches holes in epithelial cells, causing a leakage of cytoplasm (which the bacteria feed on)

  • limited area of infection

What do exotoxins do

• Toxin enters bloodstream upon attachment

  • Incredibly dangerous, as it circulates throughout the body rapidly

Bodys defense against infection

• mast cells

• The death of many white blood cells send signal molecules called pyrogens (induces fever)

How to treat for infection

• Antibiotics = Multiple receptors that act on many different types of bacteria 

  • Works with antibodies to stop infection

Why are there more drugs against bacteria then viruses

• Bacteria have unique bacterial proteins, that antibiotics can target

• Viruses are indistinguishable from human cells once infected

  • Viral DNA = CTAG (same as humans!!)

Are Viruses Alive?

• Viruses are not alive

  • Lack cell walls

  • Lack organelles

  • Do not grow

  • Can crystallize like a mineral

  • Viruses do not divide (no sexual, or asexual reproduction)

Whats within a virus

Viruses are incredibly small in size, and have one key shape

• Capsid = Contains DNA and RNA

• RNA viruses have to convert to DNA through enzymes (reverse transcriptase)

Two types of viruses

• Non-envelope virus

• Envelope virus

Non-Enveloped Viruses

• last long durations on outside objects

  • Adenovirus

  • Papillomavirus

  • Parvovirus

Enveloped Virus

• Delicate protein envelope surrounding the capsid

• Cannot last on inanimate objects, needs cell-to-cell contact instead

  • Herpes

  • Hepatitis 

  • HIV

  • Coronavirus

Virus; sequence of events

1. Attachment (first step for viral infections) 

2. Once attached, viruses inject DNA or RNA into cells, emptying the capsid

• virus enters the cell, and uses cells nucleus to generate more virus particles

3. After a certain amount of virus particles is reached, they burst out of the cell and use the cell membrane to make capsids

Known Viruses; HSU

Herpes Simplex Virus (HSU)

• Double-stranded enveloped DNA virus

  • Appears as cold sores on the lips

  • Will remain in the body until host death as a latent virus

Known Viruses; Mononucleosis

Epstein-Barr virus (type of herpes)

• Infect B-cells exclusively

Known Viruses; HIV

• RNA Virus

• Vaccine/drug works on RT enzyme

• Infects CD4 T-cell 

  • Gateway cell of the lymph node 

Known Viruses; Human papillomavirus

Warts

• Lives on exterior of skin

  • Avoids white blood cells

Transit time of the entire digestive tract

•  24-72 hrs.

  • NOTE: Males digest food faster than females

Transit time of Mouth in the digestive track

• less than 1 min.

Transit time of Esophagus in the digestive track

4-8 sec.

Transit time of Stomach in the digestive track

• 4-6 hr.

  • Empty = < ⅓ cup

  • Full = 6-7 cups

Transit time of Small Intestines in the digestive track

• 4-6 hr.

Transit time of Large Intestines in the digestive track

• 10-59 hr.