Untitled document (12)

Motivation

The factors that direct and energize behavior.

Instinct

Inborn patterns of behavior that are essential for survival.

Drive reduction

Behavior motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.

Arousal

Maintaining certain levels of stimulation and activity.

Incentive

Motivated by the desire to obtain valued external goals.

Cognitive

Motivation is a product of thoughts, expectations, and goals.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's theory that suggests that lower needs must be satisfied before higher order needs.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state.

Obesity

Body weight more than 20% above average weight for height.

Affiliation

The need for relationships and connections with others.

Belongingness

The fundamental human need for affiliation and bonds.

Power

The need for impact, control, and influence over others.

Achievement

Striving for excellence and avoiding failure.

Emotions

Psychological and physiological responses that prepare us for action and shape our behavior.

James-Lange theory

Emotions are a reaction to bodily events from external situations.

Cannon-Bard theory

Bodily changes and emotional experience occur simultaneously.

Schacter-Singer theory

Arousal and cognitive labeling determine emotional experience.

Constructed emotion

Emotions are constructed by the brain in the moment.

Emotional agility

Rejecting the distinction of good vs. bad emotions and accepting all emotions.

Happiness

The elusive emotion that is influenced by various factors.

Factors that moderately predict happiness

health, social activity, religious affiliation

Factors that strongly predict happiness

relationship

Developmental Psychology

branch of psychology looking at patterns of growth & change occurring throughout life

Nature and Nurture

the interaction between biologically predetermined patterns of behavior and the constantly changing environment

Twin Studies

using identical twins to study the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors

Cross-sectional research

comparing people of different ages at the same point in time to study differences in development

Longitudinal research

tracing the behavior of one or more participants over time to study development

Sequential research

combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to study development

Prenatal Development

the development of the fetus from conception to birth

Genetics

the study of hereditary information transmitted through chromosomes and genes

Zygote

the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm at the time of conception

Embryo

a developed zygote with a heart, brain, and other organs

Fetus

a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth

Teratogens

substances that can alter or harm the development of the unborn baby's body or brain

Reflexes

unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

Attachment

emotional bonds with a caregiver, evidenced by seeking closeness and displaying distress on separation

Imprinting

the instinctive following of the first moving object seen after birth

Harlow's Monkeys

study on attachment in infant rhesus monkeys, showing preference for comfort over food

Bowlby on Attachment

infants emit behaviors that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers

Attachment Behavioral System

infant signals and caregiver responses that build attachment

Assessing Attachment

The Strange Situation test to measure attachment styles

Adult Attachment Styles

the internal working models about adult relationships formed based on infant attachment relationships

Adult attachment styles

Three styles of attachment in adults - uncomfortable being close, comfortable being close, and wanting to be close but worrying about rejection.

Parenting styles

Different strategies and practices used by parents to raise their children.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson's theory that proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, with four occurring during childhood, where each stage involves resolving a crisis or conflict.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from birth to 2 years and involves children's understanding of the world through touching and sucking, with little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or symbols.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from 2 to 7 years and involves the development of language and symbolic thinking, egocentric thinking, and an inability to understand conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from 7 to 12 years and involves the development of conservation and overcoming some egocentrism.

Formal Operational Stage

The fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from 12 years to adulthood and involves the development of logical and abstract thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

A concept in Vygotsky's view of cognitive development that refers to the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable other.

Erikson's Stages

Eight stages of psychosocial development proposed by Erikson, including identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego-integrity versus despair.

Disengagement Theory

A theory of social changes in late adulthood that suggests aging can lead to gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels, providing an opportunity for increased reflection and decreased emotional investment in people beyond one's immediate circle.

Activity Theory

A theory of successful aging that suggests maintaining interests, activities, and level of social interaction from middle adulthood contributes to a fulfilling and active life in late adulthood.

Personality

People's typical ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are relatively consistent over time and across situations.

Freud's Psychodynamic Approach

Freud's approach to personality that suggests behavior is motivated by the unconscious, which contains memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts.

Id

The raw, unorganized, and inborn part of personality that operates on the pleasure principle to reduce tension created by primitive drives.

Ego

The part of personality that develops shortly after birth and strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the outside world, operating on the reality principle.

Superego

The part of personality that represents the rights and wrongs of society, consisting of the conscience and ego-ideal, which motivate morally proper behavior.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies employed to reduce anxiety, such as repression, regression, displacement, rationalization, and denial.

Projection

People attribute unwanted impulses and feelings to someone else.

Sublimation

People divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Reaction formation

Unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in consciousness.

Repression

Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.

Rationalization

Generating reasonable-sounding explanations (excuses) for unacceptable behaviors or personal failures.

Jung's Collective Unconscious

Common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even animal ancestors from the distant past.

Archetypes

Universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, or experience.

Karen Horney

Rejected Freud's suggestion of penis envy and emphasized cultural influences on personality.

Trait theory

Model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality.

Allport's Trait Theory

Suggested three basic categories of traits:cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.

Factor analysis

Statistical method of identifying associations among many variables to reveal more general patterns.

The Big Five Personality Traits

Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Learning Approaches

Personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment.

Bandura's observational learning theory

People can foresee outcomes of behaviors without carrying them out.

Reciprocal determinism

Environment affects personality, but behavior and personalities also modify the environment.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's personal capabilities.

Humanistic approaches

Emphasize people's innate goodness and drive to achieve higher levels of functioning.

Rogers' need for self-actualization

Realizing highest potential.

Rogers' conditions of worth

Placing value on others' opinions leads to distorted self-concepts.

Physiognomy

Notion that personality traits can be detected from facial features.

Projective tests

Person shown ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe or tell a story about it.

Self-report measures of personality

Asking individuals directly about their thoughts and feelings.

Behavioral assessment

Measures of behavior used to describe personality characteristics.

Health Psychology

Branch of psychology that investigates psychological factors related to wellness & illness.

Stress

A person's response to events that threaten or challenge one's ability to cope.

Traumatic

Causing emotional distress or disturbance.

Stressors

Events or situations that cause stress.

Transactional Stress Model

A model that emphasizes the subjective nature of stress and how individuals perceive and appraise events.

Primary Appraisal

The evaluation of the relevance and significance of an event.

Secondary Appraisal

The evaluation of one's ability to cope with an event.

Cataclysmic Events

Sudden and impactful events that affect many people simultaneously.

Personal Stressors

Major life events that elicit immediate reactions.

Background Stressors

Everyday annoyances that have long-term effects if they continue.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Long-lasting effects after major catastrophes or personal stressors, characterized by symptoms such as flashbacks, emotional numbing, and sleep difficulties.

Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory

A tool that assigns numerical values to major life events to assess their impact on stress levels.

Daily Hassles

Minor irritations of daily life that can contribute to chronic stress.

Uplifts

Minor positive events that make one feel good or uplifted.

Responding to Stress

Emotional, physiological, and psychological responses to stress.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A bodily response to stress that occurs in three stages:alarm and mobilization, resistance, and exhaustion.

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of the relationship between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system.

Type A Behavior

Characterized by hostility, competitiveness, and a sense of urgency, often associated with a higher risk of heart disease.