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Motivation
The factors that direct and energize behavior.
Instinct
Inborn patterns of behavior that are essential for survival.
Drive reduction
Behavior motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.
Arousal
Maintaining certain levels of stimulation and activity.
Incentive
Motivated by the desire to obtain valued external goals.
Cognitive
Motivation is a product of thoughts, expectations, and goals.
Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's theory that suggests that lower needs must be satisfied before higher order needs.
Homeostasis
The body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state.
Obesity
Body weight more than 20% above average weight for height.
Affiliation
The need for relationships and connections with others.
Belongingness
The fundamental human need for affiliation and bonds.
Power
The need for impact, control, and influence over others.
Achievement
Striving for excellence and avoiding failure.
Emotions
Psychological and physiological responses that prepare us for action and shape our behavior.
James-Lange theory
Emotions are a reaction to bodily events from external situations.
Cannon-Bard theory
Bodily changes and emotional experience occur simultaneously.
Schacter-Singer theory
Arousal and cognitive labeling determine emotional experience.
Constructed emotion
Emotions are constructed by the brain in the moment.
Emotional agility
Rejecting the distinction of good vs. bad emotions and accepting all emotions.
Happiness
The elusive emotion that is influenced by various factors.
Factors that moderately predict happiness
health, social activity, religious affiliation
Factors that strongly predict happiness
relationship
Developmental Psychology
branch of psychology looking at patterns of growth & change occurring throughout life
Nature and Nurture
the interaction between biologically predetermined patterns of behavior and the constantly changing environment
Twin Studies
using identical twins to study the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors
Cross-sectional research
comparing people of different ages at the same point in time to study differences in development
Longitudinal research
tracing the behavior of one or more participants over time to study development
Sequential research
combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to study development
Prenatal Development
the development of the fetus from conception to birth
Genetics
the study of hereditary information transmitted through chromosomes and genes
Zygote
the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm at the time of conception
Embryo
a developed zygote with a heart, brain, and other organs
Fetus
a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth
Teratogens
substances that can alter or harm the development of the unborn baby's body or brain
Reflexes
unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
Attachment
emotional bonds with a caregiver, evidenced by seeking closeness and displaying distress on separation
Imprinting
the instinctive following of the first moving object seen after birth
Harlow's Monkeys
study on attachment in infant rhesus monkeys, showing preference for comfort over food
Bowlby on Attachment
infants emit behaviors that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers
Attachment Behavioral System
infant signals and caregiver responses that build attachment
Assessing Attachment
The Strange Situation test to measure attachment styles
Adult Attachment Styles
the internal working models about adult relationships formed based on infant attachment relationships
Adult attachment styles
Three styles of attachment in adults - uncomfortable being close, comfortable being close, and wanting to be close but worrying about rejection.
Parenting styles
Different strategies and practices used by parents to raise their children.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson's theory that proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, with four occurring during childhood, where each stage involves resolving a crisis or conflict.
Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from birth to 2 years and involves children's understanding of the world through touching and sucking, with little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or symbols.
Preoperational Stage
The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from 2 to 7 years and involves the development of language and symbolic thinking, egocentric thinking, and an inability to understand conservation.
Concrete Operational Stage
The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from 7 to 12 years and involves the development of conservation and overcoming some egocentrism.
Formal Operational Stage
The fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which occurs from 12 years to adulthood and involves the development of logical and abstract thinking.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
A concept in Vygotsky's view of cognitive development that refers to the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable other.
Erikson's Stages
Eight stages of psychosocial development proposed by Erikson, including identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego-integrity versus despair.
Disengagement Theory
A theory of social changes in late adulthood that suggests aging can lead to gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels, providing an opportunity for increased reflection and decreased emotional investment in people beyond one's immediate circle.
Activity Theory
A theory of successful aging that suggests maintaining interests, activities, and level of social interaction from middle adulthood contributes to a fulfilling and active life in late adulthood.
Personality
People's typical ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are relatively consistent over time and across situations.
Freud's Psychodynamic Approach
Freud's approach to personality that suggests behavior is motivated by the unconscious, which contains memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts.
Id
The raw, unorganized, and inborn part of personality that operates on the pleasure principle to reduce tension created by primitive drives.
Ego
The part of personality that develops shortly after birth and strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the outside world, operating on the reality principle.
Superego
The part of personality that represents the rights and wrongs of society, consisting of the conscience and ego-ideal, which motivate morally proper behavior.
Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies employed to reduce anxiety, such as repression, regression, displacement, rationalization, and denial.
Projection
People attribute unwanted impulses and feelings to someone else.
Sublimation
People divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.
Reaction formation
Unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in consciousness.
Repression
Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.
Rationalization
Generating reasonable-sounding explanations (excuses) for unacceptable behaviors or personal failures.
Jung's Collective Unconscious
Common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even animal ancestors from the distant past.
Archetypes
Universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, or experience.
Karen Horney
Rejected Freud's suggestion of penis envy and emphasized cultural influences on personality.
Trait theory
Model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality.
Allport's Trait Theory
Suggested three basic categories of traits:cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
Factor analysis
Statistical method of identifying associations among many variables to reveal more general patterns.
The Big Five Personality Traits
Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
Learning Approaches
Personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment.
Bandura's observational learning theory
People can foresee outcomes of behaviors without carrying them out.
Reciprocal determinism
Environment affects personality, but behavior and personalities also modify the environment.
Self-efficacy
Belief in one's personal capabilities.
Humanistic approaches
Emphasize people's innate goodness and drive to achieve higher levels of functioning.
Rogers' need for self-actualization
Realizing highest potential.
Rogers' conditions of worth
Placing value on others' opinions leads to distorted self-concepts.
Physiognomy
Notion that personality traits can be detected from facial features.
Projective tests
Person shown ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe or tell a story about it.
Self-report measures of personality
Asking individuals directly about their thoughts and feelings.
Behavioral assessment
Measures of behavior used to describe personality characteristics.
Health Psychology
Branch of psychology that investigates psychological factors related to wellness & illness.
Stress
A person's response to events that threaten or challenge one's ability to cope.
Traumatic
Causing emotional distress or disturbance.
Stressors
Events or situations that cause stress.
Transactional Stress Model
A model that emphasizes the subjective nature of stress and how individuals perceive and appraise events.
Primary Appraisal
The evaluation of the relevance and significance of an event.
Secondary Appraisal
The evaluation of one's ability to cope with an event.
Cataclysmic Events
Sudden and impactful events that affect many people simultaneously.
Personal Stressors
Major life events that elicit immediate reactions.
Background Stressors
Everyday annoyances that have long-term effects if they continue.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Long-lasting effects after major catastrophes or personal stressors, characterized by symptoms such as flashbacks, emotional numbing, and sleep difficulties.
Holmes-Rahe Life Stress Inventory
A tool that assigns numerical values to major life events to assess their impact on stress levels.
Daily Hassles
Minor irritations of daily life that can contribute to chronic stress.
Uplifts
Minor positive events that make one feel good or uplifted.
Responding to Stress
Emotional, physiological, and psychological responses to stress.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
A bodily response to stress that occurs in three stages:alarm and mobilization, resistance, and exhaustion.
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of the relationship between psychological processes, the nervous system, and the immune system.
Type A Behavior
Characterized by hostility, competitiveness, and a sense of urgency, often associated with a higher risk of heart disease.
