CHAPTER 8: MOTIVATION & EMOTION

Page 2:

• Motivation is the factors that direct and energize behavior

• Motivation has biological, cognitive, and social aspects

• Psychologists have developed various approaches to explain motives

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• Major approaches to motivation: Instinct, Drive reduction, Arousal, Incentive, Cognitive, Hierarchy of needs

• Instinct approaches: Inborn patterns of behavior essential for survival

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• Difficulties with instinctual approach to motivation: Disagreement on primary instincts, Cannot explain specific patterns of behavior, Human behavior is learned, not instinctual

• Drive-reduction approaches: Behavior motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs, Unpleasant feelings until needs are met

• Primary drives: related to biological needs or species needs, Secondary drives: brought about by prior experience and learning

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• Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Self-actualization, Esteem needs, Belongingness and love needs, Safety needs, Physiological needs

• Lower needs must be satisfied before higher order needs

• Examples of people pursuing higher goals without basic needs

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• Self-actualizers strive for a positive view of self

• Supportive environment necessary for self-actualization

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• Homeostasis: body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state

• Feedback loops maintain optimal state

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• Challenges of drive-reduction approaches

• Cannot explain behaviors that increase excitement or arousal

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• Arousal approaches: Maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity

• Seek stimulation when levels are too low

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• Incentive approaches: Motivated by desire to obtain valued external goals

• External stimuli account for motivation

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• Cognitive approaches: Motivation is a product of thoughts, expectations, and goals

• Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Page 25:

• Obesity: body weight more than 20% above average weight for height

• Factors influencing eating behavior

• Various motivation theories apply

Page 26:

• Biological Factors Hypothesis: Injury to the hypothalamus affects weight set point

• Weight set point regulates food intake

• Hypothalamus acts as an internal weight thermostat

• Metabolism influences ability to lose weight

• Metabolic rate varies among individuals

Page 28:

• The Need for Affiliation

• Relationships and connections with others provide meaning and happiness

• Quote from Esther Perel on the importance of relationships

Page 29:

• The Need to Belong: Affiliation Motive

• Affiliation is a fundamental human need

• Bonds have a strong evolutionary component

• Ostracism and fear of rejection lead to pain and attempts to re-establish bonds

• Research on the effects of cyber or online bullying

Page 31:

• Social Isolation: Public Health Crisis?

• Increasing levels of loneliness and isolation in the US and other parts of the world

• Loneliness can shorten a person's life by 15 years

• Loneliness triggers stress hormones and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer

Page 33:

• The Need for Power & Achievement

• Need for power: seeking impact, control, and influence over others

• Need for achievement: striving for excellence and avoiding failure

Page 34:

• Need for Power

• People with a strong need for power are more likely to belong to organizations and seek office

• Displaying evidence of power through possessions

• Differences in how men and women with high power needs channel their needs

Page 35:

• Need for Achievement

• High need for achievement seeks out challenging situations to prove success

• Low need for achievement motivated by a desire to avoid failure

Page 38:

• What Are Emotions & Why Do We Have Them?

• No consensus on the definition and purpose of emotions

• Many theories of emotion exist, but none fully explain all aspects of emotional experience

Page 39:

• The Functions of Emotions

• Emotions prepare us for action and shape our future behavior

• Emotions help us interact effectively with others

Page 40:

• Determining the Range of Emotions

• Challenge in identifying the most important, fundamental emotions

• Hierarchy approach to organizing emotions

• Dr. Susan David and Dr. Brene Brown's work challenges hierarchies

Page 41:

• Determining the Range of Emotions

• Basic emotions include happiness, anger, fear, sadness, and disgust

• Differences in emotion descriptions across cultures

• Germans report experiencing schadenfreude, a feeling of pleasure over another person's difficulties

Page 42:

• Behavioral Components of Emotion

• Emotions expressed through nonverbal behavior

• Cross-cultural similarities in facial expressions of emotion

• Six fundamental emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust

Page 43:

• Cross-Cultural Differences in Emotions

• Similarities in emotion recognition but differences in how emotions are experienced, regulated, and expressed across cultures

• Display rules dictate appropriate expression of emotions

Page 44:

• Nonverbal Expression of Emotion

• Nonverbal leakage: unconscious spillover of emotional states into nonverbal behaviors

• Body language and facial expressions reveal true emotions

• The body rarely lies

Page 47:

• The Roots of Emotions

• Physiological reactions accompany emotions, but the specific role is still debated

• James-Lange theory: bodily changes cause the experience of emotion

• Cannon-Bard theory: bodily changes and emotional experience occur simultaneously

• Schachter-Singer theory: arousal and cognitive labeling determine emotional experience

Page 49:

• James-Lange Theory of Emotion

• Emotions are a reaction to bodily events from external situations

• Brain interprets bodily events as specific emotional experiences

• Emotional experiences can occur before physiological changes

• Physiological arousal does not always lead to emotional experience

Page 50:

• Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

• Criticized flaws in James-Lange Theory

• Physiological changes occur too slowly to trigger emotional responses

• Physiological arousal can occur without experiencing emotion

• Different emotions can arise from the same physiological arousal

• Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals to the cortex and autonomic nervous system

Page 52:

• Schacter & Singer's Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

• Two psychological events required for emotion

• After an emotion-provoking event, experience undifferentiated or ambiguous state of arousal

• Seek external cues and cognitive interpretation to understand arousal and label it as an emotion

Page 53:

• Misattribution of Arousal

• Example of being 70 meters above the river

Page 54:

• Dutton and Aron's Capilano Suspension Bridge Study

• Study with attractive female approaching male visitors on wobbly or sturdy bridge

• Ambiguous physiological arousal interpreted as attraction on wobbly bridge

• Similar principles to first dates on rollercoasters or scary movies

Page 55:

• Contemporary Perspectives on the Neuroscience of Emotions

• Specific emotions activate different portions of the brain on PET scans

• Happiness associated with decreased activity in certain areas of the cerebral cortex

• Sadness associated with increased activity in particular portions of the cortex

• Results have critics and skeptics

Page 56:

• Dr. Lisa Feldman Barrett's Theory of Constructed Emotion

• Emotions are not hardwired brain reactions

• Emotions are constructed by the brain in the moment

• Brain predicts and constructs the experience of the present world

Page 57:

• Dr. Lisa Feldman Barrett's Theory of Constructed Emotions (continued)

• Emotions detected in others come from one's own head

• Same physical sensations can lead to different experiences

• Emotions are not controlled by mythical emotion circuits

• Teach the brain to predict differently and be the architect of your experience

Page 58:

• Dr. Susan David's Emotional Agility

• Rejects the distinction of good vs. bad emotions

• All emotions serve a function and should be accepted

• Suppressing emotions amplifies them and they will reemerge

• Radical acceptance of all emotions is the cornerstone of resilience

Page 59:

• Dr. Susan David's Emotional Agility (continued)

• Accurate labeling of emotions helps discern their cause

• Emotions are data, not directives

• Own emotions, don't let them own you

Page 60:

• Happiness: The Elusive Emotion

• What is happiness and how do we find and keep it?

Page 61:

• Factors that Contribute to Happiness

• Top 3 factors contributing to happiness

Page 62:

• Why is Happiness Elusive?

• Humans aren't designed to be constantly happy

• Hedonic treadmill, upward social comparisons, asymmetry of affective experience

Page 63:

• Dispelling Myths about Happiness

• Factors that do not predict happiness: money, age, parenthood, IQ, attractiveness

Page 10: Factors that Predict Happiness

• Moderately predict happiness: health, social activity, religious affiliation

  • Health: physical well-being affects happiness

  • Social activity: having a strong social network and engaging in social interactions contributes to happiness

  • Religious affiliation: being part of a religious community can provide a sense of purpose and support

• Strongly predict happiness: relationship

  • Having a satisfying and supportive relationship is a significant predictor of happiness

Page 11: Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture

• Twin Studies

  • Identical twins raised in different environments provide insights into the influence of genetics and environment on development

  • Differences in development between genetically identical twins can be attributed to variations in their environment

• Developmental Research Techniques

  • Cross-sectional research: compares people of different ages at the same point in time, provides information about differences in development between age groups

  • Longitudinal research: traces the behavior of one or more participants over time, assesses change in behavior over time

  • Sequential research: combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches, examines different age groups at several points in time

Page 12: Prenatal Development: From Conception to Birth

• The Basics of Genetics

  • Conception: when a sperm cell penetrates an egg cell, forming a zygote

  • Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures containing genes, transmit genetic information

  • Genes: parts of chromosomes that program the future development of the body

• Earliest Development

  • Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm at conception

  • Germinal period: first 2 weeks after conception, zygote increases in size

  • Embryo: developed zygote with organs, develops through cell division

  • Fetus: developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth

  • Age of viability: point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely

Page 13: Critical Periods of Development

• Sensitive periods: times during development when specific events or stimuli have the greatest impact

• Teratogens: substances that can alter or harm the development of the unborn baby

  • Examples: drugs, alcohol, radiation

  • Timing of exposure determines the significance of the impact and affected bodily systems

Page 14: Teratogens Explored

• Examples of major teratogens

  • Illness: diseases contracted during pregnancy can have devastating consequences for the fetus

  • Drug use: mothers taking addictive drugs risk giving birth to addicted babies

  • Alcohol use: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) can cause physical abnormalities and learning disabilities

Page 15: Infancy & Childhood

• Major competencies of newborns

• Milestones of physical and social development during childhood

• Cognitive development during childhood

• Reflexes: unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

Page 19: Attachment

• Emotional bonds with caregivers

• Seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation

• Profound deprivation of attachment can lead to cognitive and emotional impairment

Page 20: Lorenz's Imprinting

• Konrad Lorenz studied attachment in newborn goslings

• Goslings instinctively follow the first moving object they see after birth

Page 21: Harlow's Monkeys: Food or Comfort?

• Harry Harlow studied attachment in infant rhesus monkeys

• Monkeys preferred contact with a cloth mother for comfort, even though they would feed from a wire mother

Page 22: Bowlby on Attachment

• Infants emit behaviors that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers

• Caregivers are biologically programmed to respond with care and nurturance

• Responsiveness of the caregiver affects the child's attachment

• Reciprocity builds attachment

Page 23: Assessing Attachment: The Strange Situation

• Separation anxiety is used as a measure of attachment

• The Strange Situation is a sequence of events involving a child and their mother

• Different attachment styles are observed: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized-disoriented

Page 25: Assessing Attachment

• Attachment between children and their primary caregivers has consequences for later development

• Securely attached children tend to be more socially and emotionally competent with fewer psychological difficulties

Page 26: Hazan & Shaver: Adult Attachment

• Infant attachment relationships lead to internal working models about adult relationships

• Securely attached children grow into well-adjusted adults with positive schemas about relationships

• Insecurely attached children struggle with adult relationships

Page 28: Parenting Styles & Development

• Child's temperament and resilience interact with parenting strategies and practices

• Parenting styles can be compared to gardeners and carpenters

Page 30: Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

• Erikson proposed 8 stages of psychosocial development, with 4 occurring during childhood

• Each stage involves resolving a crisis or conflict

Page 33: Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development

• Children are not mini adults and are not passive recipients of experience

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• Development involves transitional periods (stages) that children must pass through

  • Children are motivated to match their experiences with their beliefs about the world (schemas)

  • Assimilation: incorporating new experiences into current understanding (schema)

    • Schema remains unchanged, low cognitive effort required

  • Accommodation: adjusting/modifying an existing schema

    • Change schema to match new experience, high cognitive effort required

Page 34: Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

• Children go through four stages in a fixed order

  • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years)

    • Development of object permanence

    • Development of motor skills

    • Little or no capacity for symbolic representation

  • Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

    • Development of language and symbolic thinking

    • Egocentric thinking

    • Inability to understand conservation

  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)

    • Development of conservation

    • Overcoming some egocentrism

  • Formal Operational Stage (12 years-adulthood)

    • Development of logical and abstract thinking

Page 19:

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

  • Children's understanding of the world is based on touching, sucking, etc.

  • Little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or symbols

  • Lack object permanence

Page 35: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

• Children's understanding of the world is based on touching, sucking, etc.

• Little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or symbols

• Lack object permanence

Page 36: Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

• Use of language is the most important development

• Develop internal representational systems

• Egocentric thought

• Inability to understand conservation

Page 37: Test of Theory of Mind

• Sally and Anne scenario

• Where will Sally look for her ball?

Page 38: Illustration of Piaget's Conservation Task

• Preoperational child's response vs. concrete operational child's response

Page 39: Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years)

• Mastery of the principle of conservation

• Some aspects of conservation not fully understood for several years

Page 20:

• Ability to think in a more logical manner

• Overcoming some egocentrism

Page 40: Formal Operational Stage (12 years to Adulthood)

• Abstract, formal, and logical thinking

• Thinking not tied to observed events

• Only used infrequently, not reached by many individuals

Page 41: Vygotsky's View of Cognitive Development: Considering Culture

• Cognitive development occurs through social interactions

• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

• Scaffolding of learning

Page 42: Adolescence: The "Stormy Period"

Page 43: Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

• Biological changes during puberty

• Social, emotional, and cognitive changes

• Striving for independence and moving toward adulthood

Page 44: Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World

• Adolescents seeking their place in the social world

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• Erikson's psychosocial stage theory

Page 45: Erikson's Stages

• Identity versus role confusion (Adolescence)

• Intimacy versus isolation (Post-adolescence to early 30s)

• Generativity versus stagnation (Middle adulthood)

• Ego-integrity versus despair (Late adulthood)

Page 46: Erikson's Stages

• Generativity = ability to contribute to one's family, community, work, society

• Ego-integrity versus despair (Late adulthood)

Page 47: The New Adulthood: Modern Day Realities

Page 48: Adulthood

• Emerging adulthood (late teenage years to mid-20s)

• Early adulthood (around age 20 to 40-45)

• Middle adulthood (45 to around age 65)

Page 49: Adulthood: New Realities

• Need for more education in the job market

• Little job security and lower job satisfaction

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• Marrying later and higher divorce rates

• Fewer women having children and having them later in life

Page 50: Summarizing Changes in Late Adulthood

• Intelligence remains stable for most older adults

• Some decline in fluid intelligence, but crystallized intelligence remains steady or improves

• Memory changes are not inevitable, episodic memories may decline while semantic and implicit memories are largely unaffected

Page 51: Social Changes in Late Adulthood

• Different perspectives on social changes in late adulthood

• Dependent on social support and financial stability

• Disengagement Theory

  • Aging can lead to gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels

  • Provides opportunity for increased reflection and decreased emotional investment in people beyond immediate circle

• Activity Theory

  • Successful aging involves maintaining interests, activities, and level of social interaction from middle adulthood

  • Critical lens question: What does this theory ignore?

Page 52: Reality Check: Older Adulthood in Canada

• Canadians are living longer than ever before

• Comes with physical, mental, and economic costs

• Increasing rates of poverty among older adults, especially women

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• Many older adults live alone or with minimal support

• Face ongoing bereavement and anxieties around end-of-life care

• Society is youth-focused and not built for healthy aging

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• Self-critical

• "Sadistically realistic"

Page 50: Personality

• People's typical ways of thinking, feeling, & behaving

• Personality is viewed as:

  • Relatively consistent over time & across situations

  • Involving features that distinguish us from each other

  • Influenced by causes of our patterns of behavior

Page 25: Biological and Evolutionary Approaches

• Personality determined (at least in part) by particular combinations of genes

• Grounded in evolutionary theory

• Twin studies illustrate the importance of genetics in personality

• Nature and nurture both play a role

Page 25: Freud's Psychodynamic Approach

• Behavior motivated by the unconscious

• Unconscious contains memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts

• Expose the contents of the unconscious to understand personality

Page 25: Structuring Personality: The Id

• Raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality

• Purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives

• Operates on the pleasure principle

• Reality prevents fulfillment of id's demands

Page 25: Structuring Personality: The Ego

• Develops shortly after birth

• Strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the outside world

• Operates on reality principle

• Controls actions and allows higher-order thinking

Page 25: Structuring Personality: The Superego

• Represents the rights and wrongs of society

• Has two components: conscience and ego-ideal

• Conscience prevents morally improper behavior

• Ego-ideal motivates morally right behavior

Page 26: Id, Ego, and Superego: Who Wins?

• Superego and Id are unrealistic and do not consider practical realities

• Ego must mediate or balance between the demands of the superego and the id

• Ongoing battles between superego and id shape our personality

Page 26: Freud's Psychosexual Stages

• Personality developed through a series of 5 psychosexual stages

• Developmental periods where conflicts between society's demands and sexual urges occur

• Failure to resolve conflicts can result in fixations

Page 26: Defense Mechanisms

• Anxiety is a danger signal to the ego

• Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety

• Everyone employs defense mechanisms

• Can become maladaptive if relied upon chronically

Page 21: Freud's Defence Mechanisms

• Repression: Unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.

• Regression: People behave as if they were at an earlier stage of development.

• Displacement: The expression of an unwanted feeling or thought is redirected from a more threatening powerful person to a weaker one.

• Rationalization: People provide self-justifying explanations in place of the actual, but threatening, reason for their behavior.

• Denial: People refuse to accept or acknowledge an anxiety-producing piece of information.

• Projection: People attribute unwanted impulses and feelings to someone else.

• Sublimation: People divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

• Reaction formation: Unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in consciousness.

Page 22: Repression

• Repression is the primary defense mechanism.

• Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.

• A thought or desire is pushed out of conscious awareness because it is traumatic and threatening to our sense of self.

• The feelings remain lodged within the unconscious, because acknowledging them would provoke anxiety.

Page 23: Projection & Displacement

• Projection: People defend against recognition of their own negative thoughts, feelings, motivations by projecting them onto others.

Page 27: Projection

• People attribute unwanted impulses and feelings to someone else.

Page 27: Sublimation

• People divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Note: The transcript was truncated due to token limitations.

Page 28: Displacement and Rationalization

• Displacement: Unleashing emotions on a safer or more socially acceptable target

  • Example: Yelling at partner for not doing the dishes after being yelled at by boss

• Rationalization: Generating reasonable-sounding explanations for unacceptable behaviors or failures

  • Ego constructs a rational motive to explain the unacceptable action caused by irrational impulses of the ID

  • Allows expression of dangerous impulses without disapproval from the superego

  • Explains some of the greatest atrocities in history

Page 24: The Neo-Freudians

• Jung's Collective Unconscious

  • Rejects Freud's emphasis on sexual urges

  • Primitive urges of the unconscious represent a positive life force and motivation for creativity

  • Suggests the existence of a universal collective unconscious

    • Common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols inherited from ancestors and displayed in behavior across cultures

    • Examples: Love of mother, belief in a supreme being

• Collective Unconscious and Archetypes

  • Collective unconscious contains archetypes, universal symbolic representations

  • Example: Mother archetype reflected in art, religion, literature, and mythology

Page 27: Karen Horney and Cultural Influences

• Karen Horney: The First Feminist Psychologist?

  • Rejects Freud's suggestion of penis envy in women

  • Women envy independence, success, and freedom associated with men

  • Personality develops based on social relationships and meeting child's needs

• Emphasizes cultural influences on personality

  • Example: Society's rigid gender roles lead to ambivalence about success in women

Page 28: Trait Approaches

• Trait theory: Identifying basic traits to describe personality

• Traits: Consistent personality characteristics and behaviors displayed in different situations

• All people possess certain traits, but the degree varies and can be quantified

  • Example: Different degrees of friendliness trait in different individuals

Page 29: Allport's Trait Theory and Factor Analysis

• Allport's 3 basic categories of traits

  • Cardinal traits: Direct most of a person's activities

    • Example: Total selflessness directing energy towards volunteering

  • Central traits: Major characteristics of an individual

    • Example: Honesty, sociability, kindness

  • Secondary traits: Affect behavior in fewer situations and less influential than central or cardinal traits

    • Example: Reluctance to eat meat, love of classical music

• Cattell and Eysenck: Factor Analysis

  • Factor analysis: Identifying associations among variables to reveal patterns

  • Cattell's 16 pairs of source traits, Eysenck's 3 major dimensions (extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism)

Page 32: The Big Five Personality Traits

• The Big Five Personality Traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

Page 35: Learning Approaches

• Personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment

• Skinner's belief that personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns

• Similar responses across situations caused by patterns of reinforcement in the past

• Learning approaches focus on modifying behavior through learning

Page 36: Personality influenced by thoughts, feelings, expectations, values, and observation of others' behavior

• Bandura's observational learning theory: People can foresee outcomes of behaviors without carrying them out

• Reciprocal determinism: Environment affects personality, but behavior and personalities also modify the environment

Page 38: Bandura's emphasis on self-efficacy

• Self-efficacy: Belief in one's personal capabilities

• People with high self-efficacy have higher aspirations, persistence, and success

• Self-efficacy can be cultivated through reflecting on past successes and failures, reinforcement, and encouragement from others

Page 39: Humanistic Approaches

• Humanistic approaches emphasize innate goodness and drive to achieve higher levels of functioning

• Rogers' need for self-actualization: Realizing highest potential

• Need for positive regard: Desire to be loved and respected, dependence on others' opinions

Page 40: Rogers' notion of self-discrepancies and conditions of worth

• Self-discrepancies: Conflict between experiences and self-concepts

• Discrepancies lead to psychological disturbances and anxiety

• Conditions of worth: Placing value on others' opinions leads to distorted self-concepts

• Incongruence leads to anxiety and defensive behavior

Page 45: Physiognomy and Personality Assessment

• Physiognomy: Personality traits detected from facial features

• Falsified in the past but making a return

• Examples of discriminating structural features for predicting criminality

Page 51: Personality Assessment Methods

• Projective tests: Ambiguous stimulus to describe or tell a story

  • Examples: Rorschach test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• Self-report measures: Directly asking about thoughts and feelings

  • Example: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2)

Page 52: Behavioral assessment and Health Psychology

• Behavioral assessment: Measuring behavior to describe personality characteristics

• Stress and Coping in Health Psychology

• Psychoneuroimmunology: Study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain

Page 34: Recent Evidence on Stress

• Highest reported stress levels among 35-54 year-olds

• Students feeling overwhelmed and academic life being traumatic

• 15-17-year-olds spending most of their day under significant stress

• Grade 7 & 8 students reporting stress and worry

Page 33: Defining Stress and Subjectivity

• Stress is a response to events that threaten or challenge one's ability to cope

• Even pleasant events can evoke stress

• Stress is subjective and varies from person to person

• Perception of threat and lack of coping resources determine stress

Page 34: Lazarus & Folkman's Transactional Stress Model

• Stress is subjective and impacts individuals differently

• Individual differences in noticing and appraising an event

• Primary appraisal: Relevance and significance of the event

• Secondary appraisal: Ability to cope with the event

• Categorizing stressors

Page 35: Cataclysmic events and Personal stressors

• Cataclysmic events are sudden and affect many people simultaneously.

  • Examples: major catastrophes

• Personal stressors are major life events with immediate reactions.

  • Examples: death of a loved one, loss of a job, major personal failure

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Long-lasting effects after major catastrophes or personal stressors.

• Symptoms include flashbacks, emotional numbing, sleep difficulties, substance abuse.

• Veterans and women in treatment for substance misuse often have PTSD.

• Trauma severity and outcomes are weakly correlated.

Background stressors

• Everyday annoyances with long-term effects if they continue.

• Examples: changes in life, internal conflicts, frustration, pressure.

Page 18: Cumulative Impact of Chronic Stressors

• Daily grind of traffic, work, kids, cooking, laundry.

• Activates same hormonal response as acute stressors, but over prolonged periods of time.

Page 36: Daily Hassles & Uplifts

• Daily Hassles & Uplifts scales used to assess chronic stressors & their buffers.

Uplifts

• Minor positive events that make one feel good/uplifted.

• Frequent experience of uplifts may protect psychological health.

• Greater number of uplifts experienced, the fewer negative psychological symptoms reported.

• Examples: compliments, friendly chats, great meals, accomplishing goals, etc.

Hassles

• Minor irritations of daily life.

• Examples: not enough time, too many things to do, troubling thoughts about the future, etc.

Page 21: Responding to Stress

• Emotional, physiological, and psychological responses.

Page 22: Individual's Response to Stress

• Behavioral, emotional, cognitive, physiological responses.

• Coping efforts, anxiety, anger, fear, etc.

• Autonomic arousal, hormonal fluctuation, neurochemical changes.

• Stage of physical exhaustion.

Page 23: The High Cost of Stress

• Stress has biological and psychological consequences.

• Exposure to stressors leads to hormone secretions, increased heart rate and blood pressure.

• Short-term responses may be adaptive, but chronic exposure leads to decline in overall biological functioning.

• Stressful reactions can promote deterioration of body tissues.

Page 24: The High Cost of Stress

• Psychophysiological disorders result from or are worsened by stress.

• Physical problems such as high blood pressure, headaches, backaches, indigestion, fatigue, etc.

• High levels of stress prevent people from adequately coping with life.

• Changes our view of the world, negative lens, less able to deal with new stressors.

Page 25: How Stress Affects Your Brain & Body

• Cumulative activation of fight-or-flight response causes widespread damage.

• High blood pressure, plaque build-up in arteries, heart attack.

• Changes gut bacteria, increase in GERD.

• Cortisol increases appetite, crave comfort food, put on extra weight.

• Dampen immune response, slow healing.

• Shortened telomeres, cell age measurement, leads to cell death.

• Acne, hair loss, sexual dysfunction, headaches, muscle tension.

Page 26: Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• Bodily response to stress.

• 3 stages: alarm & mobilization, resistance, exhaustion.

• Stress hormones released, physiological changes, coping depleted.

Page 27: General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• Stress response system defends, then fatigues.

• Alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion.

Page 28: The General Adaptation Syndrome Model

• Alarm and mobilization, resistance, exhaustion.

• Negative consequences of stress occur when coping is inadequate.

Page 29: Psychoneuroimmunology and Stress

• Health psychologists take a broader approach than the GAS model.

• Focus on outcomes of stress and identified 3 main consequences.

Page 30: Psychology and Illness

• Mind-body connection is real and often undervalued.

Page 31: The A’s and B’s and D’s of Coronary Heart Disease

• Type A behavior characterized by hostility, competitiveness, time urgency, feeling driven.

• Type B behavior characterized by cooperation, patience, noncompetitiveness, nonaggressiveness.

• Type D (distressed) characterized by insecurity, anxiety, negative outlook.

• Type A's lead fast-paced lives, more prone to heart disease.

• Hostility is a key component linking Type A behavior and heart disease.

Page 32: The A’s and B’s and D’s of Coronary Heart Disease

• Type A behavior predicts heart disease independently of other factors.

• Hostility leads to excessive physiological arousal, increased production of stress hormones.

Page 33: What Type Are You?

• Type A and Type B personality characteristics.

• Type A's more prone to heart disease, driven, impatient, multitaskers.

Page 34: Psychological Aspects of Cancer

• Cancer is the 2nd leading cause of death after CHD.

• Emotional responses of people living with cancer can affect the course of the disease.

• Study found that those with a fighting spirit were more likely to recover.

• Research shows that a fighting spirit does not improve long-term survival rate.

• Emotional state affects the immune system, similar to how stress affects it.

• Certain psychological therapies have the potential to extend the lives of people with cancer.

Page 35: Stress and Psychological Functioning

• Chronic stress can lead to impaired performance, burnout, and psychological problems.

• Impaired performance includes choking under pressure.

• Burnout is characterized by physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion.

• Chronic stress can contribute to the risk of developing psychological problems or exacerbate existing ones.

Page 36: Moderating the Effects of Stress

• Ways to buffer against or reduce the experience of stress.

Page 37: Coping with Stress: What We SHOULD DO

• Various strategies to cope with stress:

  • Therapy

  • Music

  • Spa time

  • Exercise

  • Stress management

  • Nature

  • Hobby

  • Yoga

  • Meditation

Page 38: Coping with Stress: What We ACTUALLY DO

• Examples of coping with stress in reality:

  • ENEJERRY'S Cookie Dough Cream

Page 39: Coping with Stress

• Efforts to control, reduce, or tolerate stress.

Page 40: Meditation & Stress

• Meditation is associated with various benefits in relation to stress:

  • Reduction in stress hormones and inflammatory response.

  • Reduction in anxiety, depression, PTSD, chronic negative thoughts.

  • Increases in positive emotions, gratitude, empathy.

  • Improves quality of sleep.

  • Greater self-awareness/insight, sense of self-efficacy.

  • Increased memory and attention span, less mind wandering.

Page 41: Exercise: A Healthy Stress Reliever

• Exercise reduces stress and improves mood.

• Chemical release during exercise improves mood and reduces anxiety.

• Exercise can provide a "Time Out" from worries.

• Exercise improves sleep quality.

• Exercise can be a form of meditation in motion.

Page 42: Social Support

• Relationships with others act as a buffer against stress.

• Emotional support makes individuals feel valued, heard, and seen.

• Informational support provides advice on dealing with stress.

• Tangible support involves providing goods and services to help.

Page 43: Coping with Stress

• Avoidant coping involves trying to avoid stressors.

• Examples include wishful thinking, self-medicating, and procrastination.

• Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

• Examples include repression, projection, displacement, and emotional insulation.

Page 44: Personality Factors

• Optimism, conscientiousness, and hardiness are personality factors.

• Optimists believe negative events are temporary and manageable.

• Optimistic people are more productive and engage in problem-focused coping.

• Optimists have lower mortality rates, better immune system response, and happier relationships.

• Conscientious people engage in healthier habits, preventative healthcare, and constructive coping.

• Hardy people have a lower rate of stress-related illness and take direct action to deal with stressors.

Page 47: Resilience

• Resilience is the ability to withstand, overcome, and thrive after adversity.

• Resilient people are easygoing, independent, and work with what they have.

• Posttraumatic growth involves exploring the potential benefits and growth from adversity.

Page 48: Positive Effects of Stress

• Some adversity is necessary for growth and resilience.

Page 43:

• Stress can promote personal growth and self-improvement.

  • Intermediate levels of adversity associated with better health than low levels.

• Critical Periods for Growth (Page 49)

  • Good parenting can make a child feel safe and have a positive affective style.

  • Major adversity is not likely to benefit children, so they should be protected from major traumas.

• Avenues for Growth (Page 50)

  • Adversity reveals hidden abilities and changes self-concept for the better.

  • Psychological immune system helps in moving forward after trauma.

  • Adversity acts as a filter, separating true friends from fair-weather friends.

  • Adversity changes priorities and philosophy toward life.

  • Greater appreciation for supportive people and more empathy for others' suffering.

• Parting Thoughts: How To Cultivate a Greater Subjective Well-Being

  • Start with self-compassion and extend it out to others.

  • Practice self-compassion by being kind and understanding towards yourself.

  • Extend compassion to others by showing empathy and support.

  • Engage in more voluntary activities that are intrinsically valuable to you & that allow you to meet new people.

  • Participate in activities that align with your interests and values.

  • Seek out opportunities to engage with new people and expand your social circle.

  • Surround yourself with people who align with your core values (or who elevate yours)

  • Choose friends and companions who share similar values and beliefs.

  • Surrounding yourself with positive influences can enhance your well-being.

Page 44:

• Be genuine and authentic with others (socialize without an end-game)

  • Interact with others sincerely and without ulterior motives.

  • Build genuine connections based on honesty and authenticity.

• Look people in the eye (put away your damn phone).

  • Give people your full attention by maintaining eye contact.

  • Avoid distractions, such as constantly checking your phone, during conversations.

• Express appreciation/gratitude. Tell people you value them.

  • Show gratitude towards others by expressing appreciation for their presence and contributions.

  • Let people know that you value and cherish their presence in your life.

• Savour: "Tilt one’s spending a bit more in the direction