2. Structuralism, Linguistic Relativity, Historical Linguistics, and Universal Grammar.

What is Structuralism in linguistics?

Founded by Ferdinand de Saussure, it is an approach that views language as a system of interdependent signs where units have no value on their own, but are defined entirely by their relationship to other units in the system.

What are the two components of Saussure’s "Linguistic Sign"?

1. Signifiant (Signifier): The "sound-image" or physical form. 2. Signifié (Signified): The mental concept or idea.

Explain the difference between "Langue" and "Parole" in Structuralism.

Langue is the abstract, social system of rules (the "code"); Parole is the individual, concrete act of speaking in a specific moment.

What is meant by the "Arbitrariness" of the linguistic sign?

The principle that there is no natural, logical, or necessary connection between the Signifiant (the sound) and the Signifié (the concept).

What is "Convention" in the context of the linguistic sign?

Since signs are arbitrary, their meaning is maintained solely through social agreement within a speech community, allowing communication to be possible.

How does the "Chess Analogy" explain linguistic value?

Just as a chess piece's value is defined by its rules and position relative to other pieces (not its material), a word's meaning is defined by its opposition to other words (e.g., "cold" only has value because "hot" exists).

How does Structuralism explain "Organizing the World"?

Structuralists believe language is not just a set of labels; instead, the system of language imposes structure on our experience, creating categories (like "warm" vs. "hot") that help us organize reality.

What are the two main criticisms of Structuralism?

1. Static Nature: It ignores how language changes over time. 2. Ignoring Reality: It treats language as a "closed bubble," ignoring social and political contexts.

Define Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis).

The theory that the structure of the specific language we speak influences (or determines) the way we perceive and categorize the world.

How does "Gendered Perception" support Linguistic Relativity?

It suggests grammatical gender "primes" thought. For example, German speakers might describe a bridge (fem. die Brücke) as elegant, while Spanish speakers (masc. el puente) might see it as strong.

What did the "Russian Blues" study reveal about language and perception?

Because Russian has two mandatory words for blue (goluboy and siniy), native speakers are faster at distinguishing shades across that specific border than English speakers.

What are the main criticisms of Linguistic Relativity?

1. Translation: If language strictly determined thought, perfect translation would be impossible. 2. Universalism: The underlying logic of the human mind may be independent of language.

Contrast "Divergence" vs. "Convergence" in Historical Linguistics.

Divergence is when one language splits into many (Latin → Romance). Convergence is when unrelated languages become similar due to geographical proximity (Balkan Sprachbund).

Contrast "Grimm’s Law" with the "Spanish F-to-H Shift."

Grimm’s Law explains shifts from Indo-European to Germanic (p → f). The Spanish F-to-H shift is a Romance law where Latin initial "f" became a silent "h" (e.g., filius → hijo).

Define Pidgin and Creole.

A Pidgin is a simplified "emergency" language for trade with no native speakers. A Creole is a full language that emerges when a new generation learns a Pidgin as their native tongue.

What are "Cognates" and how are they used in Comparative Reconstruction?

Cognates are words in different languages sharing a common root (e.g., Pater/Father). They are used to "reverse engineer" what an extinct ancestor language (Proto-language) sounded like.

What is Language Typology?

A field that classifies languages based on their structural features (like SVO vs. SOV word order) rather than their historical origins.

What is "Universal Grammar" (UG)?

An innate, biological blueprint in the human brain that contains the fundamental rules common to all human languages.

What is the "LAD" in the context of Universal Grammar?

The Language Acquisition Device is an innate biological component of the human brain that provides children with the underlying blueprint for all human language.

In Universal Grammar, what is the difference between "Principles" and "Parameters"?

Principles are universal rules common to all languages. Parameters are biological "switches" (like Pro-drop) that a child sets based on the specific language they hear.

How does the "Pro-drop" parameter differ between Italian and French?

In Italian, the switch is "on," allowing speakers to drop the subject pronoun (Parlo). In French, it is "off," requiring the pronoun (Je parle)