Unit 4 - Earth Systems & Resources
layers of the Earth: crust (lithosphere), upper mantle (asthenosphere), and mesosphere (lower mantle)
plates: sit on the asthenosphere or upper mantle; move in all directions; can be continental or oceanic & have multiple boundary types
plate boundaries: separates layers of the Earth; varies globally
convergent plate boundary: plates push toward each other
causes volcanoes, releasing magma & earthquakes
divergent plate boundary: plates push away from each other
volcano ridges or mountains
can cause earthquakes
transform (strike-slip) plate boundary: plates slide off each other
no ridges or volcanoes; shallow frequent earthquakes
earthquake formation: occur at fault lines or plate boundaries → builds up stress/energy → release of energy causes the earth to shake
geologic events help to identify plates by creating a pattern of similar area
effects of geologic events: earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and tsunamis
tsunamis: long sea wave
can be caused by underwater landslides and earthquakes
can cause contaminated water, uplifting trees, and damage to life on land
soil: forms from the weathering (mechanical process of breaking down rocks of parent materials (broken down rocks)
type of parent material: influences soil chemistry
climate: avg temperate, moisture, weathering rate, nutrients, wind redistribution
topography: affects erosion (slope of the land)
biological factors: microorganism, plant & animal use
time: neverending, continuous
soil profile: combination of soil layers from various types of rock & organism matter
surface horizon: basic rock material + human/organic material
subsoil: more basic material than organic matter
substrata: most parent material
bedrock: granite, basalt, limestone, sandstone, etc.
soil erosion: weathering of soil
caused by water, wind, gravity, human factors → water contamination
human impact on soil erosion: deforestation (lack of roots on soil) overgrazing (overeating leads to overexposure of top soil layer → vulnerable to wind & rain)
pesticides/fertilizers: changes soil chemistry, kills beneficial microorganisms
tillage: breaking up soil → preventing it from organic matter accumulation for nutrition
sheet erosion: surface layer is removed by water; prevented by maintaining plant cover
rill erosion: small channels of water flow in soil → strig cropping or contour plowing)
gully erosion: wide cuts in soil from rill erosion → diverting water to other streams and flows
soil = sand + silt + clay
sand: 2 mm to 0.05 mm (allows water to pass through)(takes 1 hour)
silt: 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm
clay: < 0.002 mm (blocks water from passing through)(takes 100 years)
soil composition is determined by the percentage of each soil particle → influences soil type (soil triangle)
soil test: the process of assessing soil content and attributes
chemical: nitrogen, phosphorous, pH/acidity
fertilizers = increase in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
tend to have 7.5 pH (basic)
rainfall → increases acidity
physical: soil composition & water holding capacity
amount of sand, silt, and clay → percolation/infiltration
percolation: water → ground
infiltration: ions/chemicals → ground (same process as percolation)
biological: microorganisms
contains bacteria, archaea, fungi, earthworms, burrowing animals, etc.
atmosphere = 78% nitrogen + 21% oxygen + 1% trace gases (argon, co2, methane, krypton, hydrogen, water, etc.)
exosphere: 600-10,00km; continues to rise until outer space
thermosphere: 85-600km; rise in temperature due to UV rays
mesosphere: 50-85km; drop in temperature as air thins out
stratosphere: 20-50km; rise in temperature from ozone formation
troposphere: 0-6-20km; air is most dense
air circulates as earth rotates
convection: changes in density temperature
coriolis effect: earth’s rotation deflects the wind (hot air in moving but also turning at the same time)
leads to routine weather patterns in both hemispheres
watershed: highest point/divide in a river
tributary: smaller streams meet larger river
delta: river meets larger body of water
aquifer: groundwater under the river
source zone: where the water in the river comes from
ex. ice cap
transition zone: after the headwater; clear cold full oxygenated
floodplain: more sedimentation → less oxygenated filled with more nutrients
rainwater → runs downhill to river or percolates through the soil to groundwater
primary energy source: solar radiation (constant)
insolation: incoming solar energy
= solar radiation/area
surface most perpendicular to the sun (equator) = highest insolation
smaller angle = larger area of solar radiation spread = smaller insolation value
areas near the pole = lower levels of insolation
amount of energy is determined by latitude and season
northern hemisphere seasons:
winter solstice: december 21-22; shortest day of the year, polar night
autumnal equinox: september 22-23; day = night
summer solstice: june 20-22; longest day of the year, midnight sun
vernal equinox: march 20-21; day = night
southern hemisphere seasons:
equinox days are the same (opposite of the northern hemisphere)
longest day: december 20/21
shortest day: june 20/21
land - low specific + no mobility = quicker temperature increase
specific heat = amount of energy needed to raise temperature per degree
water - high specific heat + high mobility = slower temperature increase
coastal areas have more stable temperatures as a result of the intersection between water and land (stabilization of temperatures in both parts)
currents: bodies of water that flow around a piece of land
warmer currents bring heat to land, raising temperatures in certain areas and providing humidity
ex. brazil, england
cooler currents bring coldness to land, dropping temperatures in certain areas and decreasing humidity
ex. canada, angola
rainshadow effect: effect of coastal breezes from the ocean on mountains
windward side: part of the mountain next to the ocean
air rises from the ocean currents → moisture rises → condensation, precipitation, vegetation → cools temperature on the mountain
leeward side: part of the mountain inland
air becomes hot and dry → decreases moisture → arid and dry as it comes down the mountain
deserts form 30 degrees above and below the equator
enso: el nino southern oscillation
series of weather events happens every 3-7 years in southern hemisphere (south america and australia)
normal wind patterns: wind goes from east to west → causes upwelling of phytoplankton (greater nutrient supply)
el nino: winds stop traveling or reverse; currents reverse → suppressing upwelling of life → decreased fishing commercialization
begins in december to february until june to august
countries surrounding australia experience dry weather → droughts, wildfires → habitat destruction
countries surrounding south america experience warm & wet conditions → flooding, landslides, etc.
pacific jet stream → warmer winters in canada & north america; wetter and colder in southern states; dry winters in midwest usa
midwest → drier conditions
la nina: enhanced neutral conditions
stronger currents, wind patterns, etc.
warm current moves closer to australian shoreline
greater upwelling in south america. (more phytoplankton)
normal ocean currents: warm current goes from south america to australia → cools down in australia → comes back to south america in oceanic life (upwelling)
increased risk of floods and landslides
cooler places get cooler and wetter weather, warmer places get warmer
polar jet stream → colder winters, drier in midwest and south usa, warmer upper midwest, etc.
layers of the Earth: crust (lithosphere), upper mantle (asthenosphere), and mesosphere (lower mantle)
plates: sit on the asthenosphere or upper mantle; move in all directions; can be continental or oceanic & have multiple boundary types
plate boundaries: separates layers of the Earth; varies globally
convergent plate boundary: plates push toward each other
causes volcanoes, releasing magma & earthquakes
divergent plate boundary: plates push away from each other
volcano ridges or mountains
can cause earthquakes
transform (strike-slip) plate boundary: plates slide off each other
no ridges or volcanoes; shallow frequent earthquakes
earthquake formation: occur at fault lines or plate boundaries → builds up stress/energy → release of energy causes the earth to shake
geologic events help to identify plates by creating a pattern of similar area
effects of geologic events: earthquakes, volcanic eruption, and tsunamis
tsunamis: long sea wave
can be caused by underwater landslides and earthquakes
can cause contaminated water, uplifting trees, and damage to life on land
soil: forms from the weathering (mechanical process of breaking down rocks of parent materials (broken down rocks)
type of parent material: influences soil chemistry
climate: avg temperate, moisture, weathering rate, nutrients, wind redistribution
topography: affects erosion (slope of the land)
biological factors: microorganism, plant & animal use
time: neverending, continuous
soil profile: combination of soil layers from various types of rock & organism matter
surface horizon: basic rock material + human/organic material
subsoil: more basic material than organic matter
substrata: most parent material
bedrock: granite, basalt, limestone, sandstone, etc.
soil erosion: weathering of soil
caused by water, wind, gravity, human factors → water contamination
human impact on soil erosion: deforestation (lack of roots on soil) overgrazing (overeating leads to overexposure of top soil layer → vulnerable to wind & rain)
pesticides/fertilizers: changes soil chemistry, kills beneficial microorganisms
tillage: breaking up soil → preventing it from organic matter accumulation for nutrition
sheet erosion: surface layer is removed by water; prevented by maintaining plant cover
rill erosion: small channels of water flow in soil → strig cropping or contour plowing)
gully erosion: wide cuts in soil from rill erosion → diverting water to other streams and flows
soil = sand + silt + clay
sand: 2 mm to 0.05 mm (allows water to pass through)(takes 1 hour)
silt: 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm
clay: < 0.002 mm (blocks water from passing through)(takes 100 years)
soil composition is determined by the percentage of each soil particle → influences soil type (soil triangle)
soil test: the process of assessing soil content and attributes
chemical: nitrogen, phosphorous, pH/acidity
fertilizers = increase in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
tend to have 7.5 pH (basic)
rainfall → increases acidity
physical: soil composition & water holding capacity
amount of sand, silt, and clay → percolation/infiltration
percolation: water → ground
infiltration: ions/chemicals → ground (same process as percolation)
biological: microorganisms
contains bacteria, archaea, fungi, earthworms, burrowing animals, etc.
atmosphere = 78% nitrogen + 21% oxygen + 1% trace gases (argon, co2, methane, krypton, hydrogen, water, etc.)
exosphere: 600-10,00km; continues to rise until outer space
thermosphere: 85-600km; rise in temperature due to UV rays
mesosphere: 50-85km; drop in temperature as air thins out
stratosphere: 20-50km; rise in temperature from ozone formation
troposphere: 0-6-20km; air is most dense
air circulates as earth rotates
convection: changes in density temperature
coriolis effect: earth’s rotation deflects the wind (hot air in moving but also turning at the same time)
leads to routine weather patterns in both hemispheres
watershed: highest point/divide in a river
tributary: smaller streams meet larger river
delta: river meets larger body of water
aquifer: groundwater under the river
source zone: where the water in the river comes from
ex. ice cap
transition zone: after the headwater; clear cold full oxygenated
floodplain: more sedimentation → less oxygenated filled with more nutrients
rainwater → runs downhill to river or percolates through the soil to groundwater
primary energy source: solar radiation (constant)
insolation: incoming solar energy
= solar radiation/area
surface most perpendicular to the sun (equator) = highest insolation
smaller angle = larger area of solar radiation spread = smaller insolation value
areas near the pole = lower levels of insolation
amount of energy is determined by latitude and season
northern hemisphere seasons:
winter solstice: december 21-22; shortest day of the year, polar night
autumnal equinox: september 22-23; day = night
summer solstice: june 20-22; longest day of the year, midnight sun
vernal equinox: march 20-21; day = night
southern hemisphere seasons:
equinox days are the same (opposite of the northern hemisphere)
longest day: december 20/21
shortest day: june 20/21
land - low specific + no mobility = quicker temperature increase
specific heat = amount of energy needed to raise temperature per degree
water - high specific heat + high mobility = slower temperature increase
coastal areas have more stable temperatures as a result of the intersection between water and land (stabilization of temperatures in both parts)
currents: bodies of water that flow around a piece of land
warmer currents bring heat to land, raising temperatures in certain areas and providing humidity
ex. brazil, england
cooler currents bring coldness to land, dropping temperatures in certain areas and decreasing humidity
ex. canada, angola
rainshadow effect: effect of coastal breezes from the ocean on mountains
windward side: part of the mountain next to the ocean
air rises from the ocean currents → moisture rises → condensation, precipitation, vegetation → cools temperature on the mountain
leeward side: part of the mountain inland
air becomes hot and dry → decreases moisture → arid and dry as it comes down the mountain
deserts form 30 degrees above and below the equator
enso: el nino southern oscillation
series of weather events happens every 3-7 years in southern hemisphere (south america and australia)
normal wind patterns: wind goes from east to west → causes upwelling of phytoplankton (greater nutrient supply)
el nino: winds stop traveling or reverse; currents reverse → suppressing upwelling of life → decreased fishing commercialization
begins in december to february until june to august
countries surrounding australia experience dry weather → droughts, wildfires → habitat destruction
countries surrounding south america experience warm & wet conditions → flooding, landslides, etc.
pacific jet stream → warmer winters in canada & north america; wetter and colder in southern states; dry winters in midwest usa
midwest → drier conditions
la nina: enhanced neutral conditions
stronger currents, wind patterns, etc.
warm current moves closer to australian shoreline
greater upwelling in south america. (more phytoplankton)
normal ocean currents: warm current goes from south america to australia → cools down in australia → comes back to south america in oceanic life (upwelling)
increased risk of floods and landslides
cooler places get cooler and wetter weather, warmer places get warmer
polar jet stream → colder winters, drier in midwest and south usa, warmer upper midwest, etc.