Chapter 1: The Development of Neuropsychology

brain theory

states that they brain is the source of behavior

neuron theory

the unit of brain structure adn function is the neuron (nerve cell)

brain

the tissue found within the skull (cranium)

hemispheres

the two symmetrical halves of the brain

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

the fluid that cushions the brain and helps remove toxic waste

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain

gyri

the folds/bumps in the cortex

sulci

the breases between the gyri

longitudinal fissure

the large sunci that divides the two hemispheres

lateral fissure

the larg sulci that divides each hemisphere in half

forebrain

the front part of the neural tube that makes up an embryo’s primitive brain, and mediates cognitive functions

brainstem

the “tube” underlying the cortex that mediates regulatory functions (e.g., eating, drinking, moving)

corpus callosum

the pathway (commissure) that connects the brain’s hemispheres

temporal lobe

the area below the lateral fissure under the temporal bone

frontal lobe

the area above the temporal lobe under the frontal bone

parietal lobe

the area behind the frontal lobe under the parietal bone

occipital lobe

the area at the back of each hemisphere between the parietal and temporal lobes, under the occipital bone

spinal cord

a string nerves connected to the brainstem that conveys sensory information into the brain and sends commands from the brain to the muscles to move

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain (inside the skull), and spinal cord (inside the vertebrae)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the nerve fibers carrying information into or away from the CNS

somatic nervous system (SNS)

consists of sensory receptors on the bodys surface and muscles that enable the brain to sense the world and react

sensory pathways

collections of fibers that carry messages for specific senses on one side of the body mainly to the opposite hemisphere 

motor pathways

groups of nerve fibers that connect the brain and spinal cord to the body’s muscles through the SNS

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

consists of pathways that control internal organs (e.g. heart beat, stomach contractions, etc.)

mentalism

a theory on how the brain and behavior are related proposed by Aristotle that states a person’s mind is responsible for behavior

dualism

a theory on how the brain and behavior are related proposed by René Descartes that states mind and body are separate but can interact

the mind-body problem

states that a person is capable of consciousness and rationality only because they have mind, but how can a nonmateria mind produce movements in a materia body?

materialism

rational behavior can be fully explained by the workings of the nervous system (Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin)

natural selection

explains how new species evolve and change over time

species

a group of organisms that can breed among themselves and usually not with mebers of other species

phenotype

traits that we can see or measure

epigenetics

the science that studies difference in gene expression related to environment and experience

neurplasticity

the nervous system’s potential for physical or chemical change that enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury

localization of function

states that a different, specific brain area controls each kind of behavior. (Franz Josef Gall)

phrenology

the study of the relation between the skull’s surface features and a person’s mental faculties (Johann Casper Spurzheim)

cranioscopy

a device was placed around the skull to measure its bumps and depressions.

lateralization of function

certain functions are localized in specific areas of brain hemispheres (Jean Baptiste Bouillaud)

Broca’s area

the anterior speech region of the brain

Broca’s phrases

the syndome that results from damage to Broca’s area

Wernicke’s area

the region of the brain thats responsible for understanding and hearing speech

Wernicke’s (fluent) aphasia

the syndrome that results from damage to Wernicke’s area

conduction aphasia

speech sounds and movements are retained, but speech is impaired because it cannot be conducted from one region to the other; the person cant reapeat what is heard

Alexia

a disconnection between the brain’s visual area and Wernciek’s area, which causes the inability to read

apraxia

a disconnection between motor and sensory areas, which causes an inability to make sequences of movements

persistent vegetative state (PVS)

when the person is alive but is unable to communicate or function independently even at the most basic level

minimally conscious state (MCS)

when the person can ocassionally utter single words and make few movements, but cant feed themselves

clinical trial

a consensual experiment directed towards developing a treatment

hierarchial organization

information is processed serially and organized as a functional hierarchy; higher levels control more-complex aspects of behavior, and does so via the lower levels (John Hughlings-Jackson)

epilepsy

a condition characterized by recurrent seizures associated with disturbance of consciousness

amnesia

partial or total loss of memory

binding problem

although the brain analyzes sensory events through multiple paralle channels, we perceive a unified experience, a memory

visual form agnosia

when a person cant see the shapes of objects nor recognize objects visually by their shape

ventral steam

a pathway from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe for object indentification (where brain legions occur in people with agnosia)

ataxia

the ability to make errors in reaching for objects while still being able to describe the objects accurately

dorsal stream

a pathway from the visual cortex to the parietal cortex that guides action relative to objects (where brain legions occur in people with ataxia)

glia

cells that help the neurons by holding them together and providing other support functions (e.g. delivering nutruents, removing waste)

cell body (soma)

the core region

dendrites

a neuron’s branching extensions

axon

the main root of a neuron

topographic organization

the study of how the cortex forms topograohic neural-spatial representations of the body’s different parts

transcranial magnetic stimulation

used to induce electrical activation in the brain by passing a magnetized coil across the skull to study how the typical brain produces behavior, andd which parts participate in partiular actions

synapse

the junction between neurons

Hebb or plastic synapses

strengthened connections between synapses that occur when individual neurons are activated at the same time

cell assemblies

occurs when Hebb’s or plastic synapses form together

trephining

cutting a circular hole in the skull to relieve pressure from a swelling brain

psychometrics

the science of measuring human mental abilities

intelligence quotient (IQ)

(mental age / chronological age) \* 100

multiple sclerosis (MS)

the hardening of nerve fiber-pathways in the spinal cord, which resulted in a loss of sensory and motor function

computer tomography (CT)

passes X-rays through the head which are aborbed mess by fluid than by brain cells and less by brain cells than by bone. 

positron emission tomography (PET)

injecting radioactive substances that decay in minutes into the blooodstream to reach the brain, which gives off photons and allows the computer to draw their location on a two- or three-dimensional reconstruction of the brain. red areas represent strong blood flow, and blue areas represent weak blood flow

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

calculates the location of moving molecules by detecting the electrical charge their movement generates.

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

an MRI method that detects the directional movements of water molecules to create virtual images of the brain’s nerve fibre pathways