Psychology in your life Chapters 13, 14, 15

What is personality?

The characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors that are relatively stable in an individual over time and across circumstances

What is a sense of self as described by the author of your text?

Your sense of self involves your mental representations of your personal experiences, such as memories and perceptions of what is going on at any particular moment. Your sense of self also includes your physical body and your conscious awareness of being separate from others and unique. In short, your sense of self is who you believe you are

List six characteristics that typify a college student's sense of self.

*gender

*age

*student status

*interpersonal style

*personal characteristics

*body image

List three ways our sense of self influences us.

It affects how you think

It affects how you behave

It affects how you feel

What is a self-schema?

An integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about the self

Organized as a network of interconnected knowledge about the self our self schema is comprised of an integrated set of __________, _________, __________, according to Marcus (1977).

memories

beliefs

generalizations

How does one self-schema affect memory?

It may increase your memory for information that is relevant to you

What group of brain cells are activated when people process information about themselves (i.e. self-schema), according to Gillihan & Farah (2005); Kelley et al. (2002)?

frontal lobe

What is the result of damage to the frontal lobes as is related to a person's self-schema?

It alters how people see themselves

What is a working self-concept?

Reflects how a person thinks of herself at a certain moment

Why does the sense of self varies from moment to moment?

Because the working self-concept includes only part of the vast array of self-knowledge

Jessica is a 20-year-old college student. She thinks of herself as a fun-loving and intelligent individual. At social functions, such as sorority parties, she loves to kid around, tell jokes, and is known by her friends as one who can liven up a venue. At school however, especially in class, she is attentive, studious, and motivated to learn. The way Jessica thinks of herself at a certain moment reflects a______________ self-concept.

working

What is self-esteem?

The affective aspect of the self

How is reflected appraisal related to self-esteem?

Self-esteem is based on how we believe others perceive us

Why are we likely to experience low self-esteem when an important person in our life rejects, ignores, or devalues us?

We come to respond to ourselves in ways that are consistent with how others respond to us

How is self-esteem a sociometer?

It is an internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection

Jack is a 21 year old college student. He would like to ask out a young woman who is in his political science class. It is apparent that she is not interested in him because of their divergent political views and Jack's lack of social graces (belching, picking his nose, scratching himself). Plus Jack heard through the grapevine that she already has a boyfriend. Psychologically what may Jack experience as his sociometer indicates a high probability of rejection?

low-self esteem

What type of anxiety disorder correlates positively with low self-esteem, according to Leary (2004); Leary & MacDonald (2003)?

social anxiety

Is there a relationship between self-esteem and life outcomes? (Base your answer on research by Baumeister, Campbell, Kreuger, & Vohs, 2003, 2005)

A weak relationship

List two types of people that make the case that having high self-esteem has a downside to it, according to Baumeister, Smart, & Boden and Baumeister et al. (2003).

Violent criminals

School bullies

List one characteristic associated with inflated self-esteem, according to the author of your text

narcissism

In relation to the downside of having an inflated self-esteem, describe a person who is narcissistic. Note: 4 answers,

*self-centered

*view themselves in grandiose terms

*feel entitled to special treatment

*manipulative

List three life outcomes associated with narcissism (i.e. inflated self-esteem), according to Campbell, Bush, Brunell, & Shelton (2005); Rhodwalt & Morf (1998); Campbell, Foster, & Finkel (2002).

*They have poor relations with others

*They become angry when challenged

*They tend to be unfaithful

Although some research has not found an increase in narcissism among college students (Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Roberts (2008) the research of Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell, & Bushman (2008) have indeed demonstrated that there has been an increase between 1979 and 2006 and point to three contributing factors. What are those three factors?

*Programs aimed at increasing self-esteem

*Grade inflations

*Rise in the use of self-promotion websites (facebook, LinkedIn)

In what age range is a woman's self-esteem at its lowest, according to Robins et al. (2002)?

18-22

Illustrating that most people view themselves as above average, what percent of adults claim they are better-than-average drivers even if they were in a car accident involving injuries, according to Guerin (1994); Svenson (1981)?

90%

What is the better-than-average effect phenomena, according to Alicke, Klotz, Breitenbecher, Yurak, & Vredenburg (1995)?

People describe themselves as above-average in nearly every way

In what three areas will most people have positive illusions (i.e. overly favorable and unrealistic beliefs about themselves), according to Taylor & Brown (1988)?

*Most people continually experience the better-than-average effect

*They have unrealistic beliefs about how much they can control what happens

*Most people are unrealistically optimistic about their personal futures

List two common unconscious strategies (cataloged by psychologists) that help us maintain a positive sense of self.

*Social comparisons

*Self-serving biases

Under what circumstances will social comparisons occur, according to Festinger (1954)?

When we evaluate our own actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with those of other people

Why do we contrast (i.e. compare) our actions, abilities, and beliefs to those of others?

It is a means of understanding our actions and emotions

What are downward comparisons?

contrasting themselves with people inferior to themselves in the characteristic they are evaluating

What are upward comparisons?

contrasting themselves with people superior to them

Jeremy is 26 years old. He thinks very highly of himself although he never finished high school and is employed in a menial position at a local restaurant. In order to maintain his high self-esteem he speaks quite negatively of those who are unemployed and live in poverty. What unconscious (social comparison) strategy is Jeremy deploying in an effort to maintain a positive sense of self (i.e. high self-esteem)?

downward comparisons

What is a temporal comparison, according to Wilson & Ross (2001)?

Another form of downward comparison, where people view their current selves as better than their former selves

What is a self-serving bias?

Taking credit for success, but blaming failure on outside factors

Within the context self-serving bias how do people deal with perceived criticism?

By assuming the criticism is motivated by envy or prejudice

Mary is a 19-year-old college student. Because she did not put much effort into studying for a humanities exam she earned a grade of D. Mary maintained that her poor grade was the result of poor instruction by the professor. What unconscious (social comparison) strategy is Mary deploying to help maintain her self-esteem?

self-serving bias

List four ways which demonstrate that we are extremely well-equipped to protect our positive beliefs about ourselves (i.e. show self-serving bias), according to Campbell & Sedikides (1999).

*We compare ourselves with others who did worse

*We diminish the importance of the challenge

*We think about the things we are really good at

*We bask in the reflected glory of both family and friends

Is self-serving bias a reflection of healthy psychological functioning or unhealthy psychological functioning, according to Mezulis, Abrahamson, Hyde, & Hankin (2004); Taylor & Brown (1988)?

healthy

What is a collectivist culture?

Cultures that emphasize the collective self more than the personal self

List five countries that emphasize the collectivist culture

Japan

Greece

Pakistan

China

Some regions Africa

What is an individualistic culture?

Cultures that emphasize the rights, freedoms, self-expression, and diversity

What determines one's sense of self in a collectivist culture, according to Marus & Kitayama (1991)? Note: 2 answers

A person's social roles and personal relationships

What is expected of children who are raised in collectivist cultures? Note: 2 answers

To follow group norms

To obey parents/teachers/people in authority

What is expected of children who live in individualistic cultures? Note: 2 answers

To be self-reliant

To pursue personal success (even at the expense of interpersonal relationships)

What determines one's sense of self in an individualistic culture, according to the author of your text?

Feelings of being distinct from others

What is the psychodynamic theory?

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

How would Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory describe conscious awareness?

A small fraction of our mental activity

What is the conscious, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

Thoughts we are aware of

What is the preconscious, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

Content that is not currently in our awareness, but that could be brought to awareness

What is the unconscious, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

Material that the mind cannot easily retrieve (hidden memories, wishes, desires, and motives)

Courtney is 22 years old. At a social gathering she met an attractive young man. She took the initiative to meet him and said "I don't think we've been seduced" instead of "introduced." According to psychodynamic theory Courtney saying "seduced" instead of "introduced" would be considered a_____________.

Freudian slip

List the three interacting structures in Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality.

Id

Superego

Ego

What is the id?

In psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle

What is the pleasure principle, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

What pushes us to seek pleasure and avoid pain

What is the force that drives the pleasure principle, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

libido

Contrast to today's view of the libido with Freud's view (of the libido).

Today's it has a specifically sexual connotation, however Freud used it to refer more generally to the energy that promotes pleasure seeking

What is the superego?

In psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that reflects the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct

During what stage in life will the superego develop, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

childhood

Stacy is a 21-year-old college student. She also works part-time at a women's apparel store. Because she's an employee she gets a 10 percent discount on merchandise. A new shipment of shoes came in and she wants to buy at least two pairs. However she is reluctant to make the purchase because she has been taught by her parents that she needs to save her money. What dynamics of personality is "kicking in" that prevents her from going through with her desire to buy the shoes, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality?

superego

What is the ego?

In psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the superego

What is the reality principle, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

It involves rational thought and problem solving

What produces individual differences in personality, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

The unique interactions of the id, superego, and ego

What leads to anxiety, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality?

Conflicts between the id and the superego

What group of psychodynamics will the ego deploy in an effort to deal with conflicts between the id and the superego resulting in the experience of high levels of anxiety, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

defense mechanisms

What are defense mechanisms?

unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from distress

Stacy is a 21-year-old college student. She also works part-time at a women's apparel store. Because she's an employee she gets a 10 percent discount on merchandise. A new shipment of shoes came in and she wants to buy at least 2 pairs (of shoes). However she is reluctant to make the purchase because she has been taught by her parents that she needs to save her money. Stacy thinks to herself"I have good grades, I work hard, plus I get a pretty decent discount so I'm going to buy those shoes!" What defense mechanism is Stacy's deploying, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality?

rationalization

Jim is 46 years old. He is seen by a local psychologist at the behest of his wife. Jim, for the past 6 months, has been drinking from 1 pint to 1 quart of liquor a day. As a result he has lost his job, his children won't talk to him, and his wife is about to file for divorce. The psychologist told Jim that he has determined that he is an alcoholic. Jim replied, "I'm not an alcoholic I can quit any time." What defense mechanism is Jim deploying, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality?

denial

Tyler is 35 years old. He is a jet engine mechanic for local airport. One month ago a new manager took over and Tyler does not get along with him. His new boss is condescending, hypercritical, and pits one employee against another. Increasingly Jim has become very angry and disgruntled. Because he cannot express his hostility at work when he goes home he takes his anger out on his children. What defense mechanism is Tyler deploying, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

displacement

Lisa is 40 years old. Two months ago her 16-year-old daughter was killed by a drunk driver. Needless to say Lisa was devastated and enraged. She had thoughts and impulses to kill the perpetrator but knows that she would be brought up on murder charges. Instead she joined Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD), an organization that lobbies to stiffen DUI laws. What defense mechanism is Lisa deploying, according to Freud's psychodynamic theory?

reaction formation

Who gets credit for much of the theoretical work on defense mechanisms?

Anna Freud

What is the purpose of the defense mechanisms (put forth by psychoanalytic theory), according to contemporary researchers?

They protect self-esteem

According to Freud what has a major impact on the development of personality?

childhood experiences

Define erogenous, according to Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development

sexually arousing

List the three erogenous zones, according to Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development

mouth

anus

gentials

List the five stages of psychosexual development, according to Freud.

oral stage

anal stage

phallic stage

latency stage

gential stage

During what stage of psychosexual development will a child suppress libidinal urges and channel them into doing school work or building friendships?

phallic stage

During what stage of psychosexual development will an adolescent or adult develop mature attitudes about sexuality?

genital stage

What is the Oedipus complex?

When children desire an exclusive relationships with the opposite-sex parent and consider the same-sex parent as a rival (and develop hostility toward that parent)

The Oedipus complex occurs in what stage of psychosexual development?

phallic stage

How is the Oedipus complex resolved?

By repressing their desires for the opposite-sex parent and identifying with the same-sex parent.

What causes a fixation in a particular stage of psychosexual development, according to Freud?

When they receive excessive parental restriction or indulgence

Describe those who have an anal-retentive personality (i.e. one who's fixated in the anal stage of psychosexual personality development).

Stubborn and highly regulating

Basic to Freud's theory of psychosexual personality development is the emphasis on libidinal drives in relation to erogenous zones. Today neo-Freudians focus on _____________________.

social interatctions

What is object relations theory (a neo-Freudian theory)?

Our mind and sense of self development in relations to others in our environment, and how we relate to these others shape our personality

What are humanistic approaches?

Ways of studying personality that emphasize self-actualization, where people seek to fulfill their potential through greater self-understanding

What influences personality, according to the humanistic approaches? Note: 3 answers

*goodness in a person

*his/her growth

*self-understanding

What is self-actualization, according to the humanistic approach?

We seek to fulfill our potential for personal growth through greater self-understanding

Who (humanistic psychologist) introduced a person-centered approach to understanding personality and human relationships?

Carl Rogers

List the two issues crucial in the development of personality, as emphasized by Carl Rogers

*Our personal understanding of our lives/our sense of self

*How others see and evaluate us

What are the conditions of worth, according to Carl Rogers's person- centered approach to understanding personality in human relationships?

Parents who do not approve of their children's behavior may withhold love. As a result, children quickly abandon their true feelings, dreams, and desires. They accept only those parts of themselves that elicit parental love/support. Thus people lose touch with their true selves in their pursuit of getting approval from others

What are Social Cognitive Approaches?

Ways of studying personality that recognize the influence of how people think

Personality is the result of ___________and _________, according to Julian Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory

expectancies for reinforcement

values we ascribe to particular reinforcers

What is the basis of a person's personality, according to Julian Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory?

locus of control

What is the locus of control?

The extent to which individuals believe how much control they have over their lives.

What is internal locus of control, according to Julian Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory?

When people believe that they themselves influence outcomes

What is external locus of control, according to Julian Rotter's (1954) expectancy theory?

When people believe that outcomes and their personal fates result from forces beyond their control

What three factors that influence how a person acts, according to Albert Bandura's (1977) model called reciprocal determinism theory?

* person's environment

*multiple person factors (characteristics, self-confidence, expectations

*behavior

What are trait approaches?

Ways of studying personality that are based on people's characteristics, their tendencies to act in a certain way over time and across circumstances