Midterm 2 Review

What does the CNS consist of?

the brain and spinal cord

Explain the term cephalization

the concentration of nervous tissue at the anterior (head) end of an organism, leading to the development of the brain

Distinguish between gyri, sulci, and fissures of the brain

Gyri are raised ridges, sulci are shallow grooves, and fissures are deep grooves that separate brain regions

What are the 5 lobes of the brain and their surface markings?

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insular; major markings include the central sulcus, lateral sulcus, and longitudinal fissure

What are the major parts/regions of the brain?

Cerebrum, diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata), and cerebellum

What are the functions of motor, sensory, and association areas of the brain?

Motor areas control movement, sensory areas process stimuli, and association areas integrate information

List the functions of the motor areas of the cerebral cortex

Primary motor cortex: Controls voluntary movements

Premotor cortex: Plans complex movements

Broca’s area: Controls speech production

Frontal eye field: Controls voluntary eye movements

List the functions of the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex

Primary somatosensory cortex: Processes touch, pain, and temperature

Visual cortex: Processes vision.

Auditory cortex: Processes sound

Olfactory cortex: Processes smell

Gustatory cortex: Processes taste

What are the functions of the 3 association areas of the cerebral cortex?

Prefrontal cortex: Involved in cognition, decision-making, and personality

Posterior association area: Helps in pattern and spatial recognition

Limbic association area: Plays a role in emotions and memory

What is meant by the term lateralization of cortical function?

It refers to the specialization of one hemisphere of the brain for certain functions

Which hemisphere is dominant for logic? For creativity?

The left hemisphere is dominant for logic and language, while the right hemisphere is dominant for artistic and spatial abilities

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

It connects the left and right hemispheres, allowing communication between them

What is the location and function of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus?

Thalamus: Relays sensory information

Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, emotions, and the endocrine system

Epithalamus (pineal gland): Regulates sleep-wake cycles via melatonin

What is the location and function of the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum?

Pons: Connects brain regions and assists in breathing control

Medulla oblongata: Controls autonomic functions like heart rate and respiration

Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movement and balance

What is the function of the spinal cord?

It relays messages between the brain and the body and controls reflexes

How is the CNS protected?

Skull, vertebrae, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the blood-brain barrier

How many spinal nerves are there, and where do they exit?

31 pairs, exiting through intervertebral foramina

What is the difference between gray matter and white matter?

Gray matter contains neuron cell bodies; white matter contains myelinated axons

What is the basic cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord?

Central gray matter (horns) surrounded by white matter (tracts)

What happens if the spinal cord is damaged?

Loss of sensation and/or motor function below the injury site

What does the PNS consist of?

Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and sensory receptors

What is the general function of sensory receptors?

Detect environmental stimuli and send information to the CNS

How are sensory receptors classified?

Mechanoreceptors: Detect touch and pressure

Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature

Nociceptors: Detect pain

Photoreceptors: Detect light

Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals

What are the three classifications of sensory receptors by location?

Exteroceptors: Detect external stimuli

Interoceptors: Monitor internal conditions

Proprioceptors: Detect body position

What are dermatomes?

Regions of skin innervated by specific spinal nerves

What is the function of the ANS?

Controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate and digestion

Explain the dual innervation pattern of the ANS

The sympathetic division activates "fight or flight," while the parasympathetic division promotes "rest and digest."

What structures detect special senses?

Vision: Retina

Smell: Olfactory receptors

Taste: Taste buds

Hearing: Cochlea

Equilibrium: Vestibular system

What causes glaucoma?

Increased intraocular pressure damages the optic nerve

Does lens accommodation change with age?

Yes, it decreases due to loss of elasticity (presbyopia)

What are myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism?

Myopia: Nearsightedness

Hyperopia: Farsightedness

Astigmatism: Irregular cornea curvature

What causes color blindness?

Defective cone cells in the retina

What is phototransduction?

Conversion of light into neural signals in the retina

Why do we have a blind spot in each eye?

The optic disc lacks photoreceptors. The brain compensates for the missing information

How do we perceive depth?

Binocular vision and brain processing

How are smell and taste linked?

Both rely on chemoreceptors; flavor perception is a combination of the two

What causes deafness?

Conductive: Middle ear damage

Sensorineural: Cochlear or nerve damage

What causes motion sickness?

Mismatch between vestibular and visual input

Divide the human nervous system into its divisions and subdivisions

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial & spinal nerves

Somatic Nervous System (SNS): Voluntary control (skeletal muscles)

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Involuntary control (organs)

Sympathetic division: "Fight or flight" response

Parasympathetic division: "Rest and digest" response

Major divisions of the nervous system?

CNS (brain/spinal cord) and PNS (nerves)

Difference between cranial and spinal nerves?

Cranial nerves originate from the brain, spinal nerves from the spinal cord

Basic functions of cranial nerves?

Control sensory and motor functions of the head/neck

Major nerve plexuses and their functions?

Cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral; innervate different body regions

How are action potential differences interpreted?

Frequency and pattern of neural signals determine perception (e.g., sweet vs. very sweet)

What is visceral pain and referred pain?

Visceral pain arises from organs, referred pain is felt in unrelated body areas

Why do we feel pain?

To signal potential injury or tissue damage

Does everyone have the same pain tolerance?

No, varies due to genetics and experience

What structures detect special senses?

Eyes (vision), nose (smell), tongue (taste), ears (hearing/balance)

What are accessory structures of special senses?

Eyelids, lacrimal glands, ear ossicles, etc

What is the function of the spinal cord?

Reflex integration and nerve signal transmission