Approaches

When did Wilhelm Wundt open the first ever lab dedicated to psychology?

1879 at the University of Leipzig, Germany

How did wundt contribute to psychology

Described as father of psychology and was the first person to call himself a psychologist

-trained many students who went on to be psychology professors in top universities, spreading wundts scientific method

-produced first academic journal for pyschological research

-wrote the first textbook

-set the foundation for approaches to come

-changed the way the mind was studied from philosophy to controlled empirical scientific research/methods (establishing it as a independent science)

Introspection

A method used by Wundt to explore the contents of the mind by having subjects report their conscious experiences in response to stimuli.

How did wundt break down conscious awareness for introspection?

Wundt broke down conscious awareness into basic elements, such as sensations ,images and thoughts.

How did wundt use structuralism?

The stimuli that wundt and his co workers experienced were always presented in the same order and same instructions were issued to all participants

Strengths of wundt research

-methods were systematic and well controlled

-all introspections were recorded in controlled environment (lab)

-standardised procedures

Limitations of wundt research

-self reporting so data is subjective and could be bias, hiding some thoughts etc

—low ecological/ external validity

Strength of modern psychology; why is it a science?

-scientific methods used e.g biological approache

-same aim as natural sciences;to describe, understand, predit and control

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Limitations of psychology as a science

-not all aspects of it use scientific methods e.g humanistic approach

-subject of study is humans— can be subjective such as demand characteristics etc

-paradigm?

Paradigm

a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all agree on

-philosopher thomas kuhn says all sciences must have this

Assumptions of behaviourist approach

Suggests we learn through experiences and interactions with the environment

-start of a as a blank slate

-only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed,not mental processes

early behaviourists e.g john B watson(1913) rejected introspection as it controlled too many vague and unmeasurable concepts; believe in scientific approach

-we learn through experiences: operant and classical conditioning

What can behaviourist approach been described as

a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

Classical conditioning

-learning through association

-first explored by pavlov in 1929

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-neutral stimulus (bell) can produce a conditioned response

Who explored classical conditioning

Pavlov 1929

What did Pavlov do?

Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell (if they are taught to associate it with getting food), produces conditioned response

What did Pavlov show?

That a neutral stim

Operant conditioning

-learning through consequences

-by B.F skinner(1923)

-refers to learning through positive and negative reinforcement, punishment

Positive reinforcement

receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed to increase likelihood of behaviour e.g a sticker for being good in class

Negative reinforcement

Doing desired behaviour to avoid something negative/unpleasant

e.g tidying room to avoid being shouted at by parents

Punishment

unpleasant consequence for negative behaviour

e.g detention for not doing homework

• prevents behaviour from being repeated

Who proposed and explored classical conditioning

Skinner 1953

Skinners Research

-conducted experiments with rats and sometimes pigeons

-in special cages called ‘skinners box’

-animals rewarded with food everytime it activated a lever (rats) or pecked the disc(pigeon)= would repeat behaviour(positive reinforcement)

-did reverse;showed they could be conditioned to perform same behaviour to avoid electric shock(negative reinforcement), shocked stopped when lever activated

Strength of behavourist approach

-controlled research e.g skinner

-real world application; token economies , gambling

Limitations of behaviourist approach

-oversimplified learning process? does not take into account mental processes etc

-Enviromental determinison:ignores free will

-ethical issues with use of animals

-generalisable ?

Social Learning Theory(assumptions)

-proposed by Albert Bandura (1960s)

-agreed with behaviourists that we learn from experience;instead proposed this was through observation and imitation

-indirect learning through vicarious reinforcement etc.

-bridge between behavourist and cognitive approach as it too takes into account role of mediational processes

Modelling

imitating the behaviour of a role model (someone you identify with and look up to you are most likely to imitate--identification)

Vicarious reinforcement

-not directly experienced

-occurs through someone else being observed(rewarded)

Mediational Processes

-involved in learning

-they mediate to determine whether a new response is aquired

They are: Attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation

Banduras Research(A)

-1961

-children watched an adult behave aggressively towards boho doll=imitated when observed playing with toys

-ones who didn’t , behaved nicely

Banduras Research(B)

-1963 with richard walters; shows vicarious reinforcement

-children saw adults being praised for aggressive behaviour towards boho doll= this group (1) showed much more aggression

-second group saw adults being punished for this aggressive behaviour= they showed little to no aggressive behaviour

-third group saw aggression with no consequence= more aggression than group 2 but less than 1

Strengths of social learning

-recognises cognitive factors, provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning

-applied to a range of real world behaviours; explains cultural differences in behaviour

-takes into account free will;reciprocal determinism

Limitations of SLT

-evidence it is based on was conducted through lab studies;could mean demand characteristics

-no focus on involvement of biological factorse.g mirror neurons that allow us to essentially imitate

Cognitive Approach (assumptions)

-argues that internal mental processes can and should studied scientifically

-these processes influence behaviour

-mind is like a computer

Schema

Mental framework of belief and expectations that influence cognitive processing

-built from experience

-’packages’ of ideas that allow us to process info properly

-for example schema of chair=something with legs that you sit on

-mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed

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Why might schemas be a problem

-assumptions due to schemas can influence memory leading to inaccurate recall e.g eyewitnesses

-can lead to poor mental health; negative schemas

-may distort our interpretations of sensory information

Theoretical and computer models

-used to help them understand internal mental processes

-theoretical models e.g multi store model are usually more abstract,flow chart representationof the steps of a specific mental process

computer models are concrete things; analagy e.g CPuUand human brain

-these models proved useful in the development of ‘thinking machines’ or ‘artificial intelligence’

Cognitive neuroscience

cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes

-due to the development of brain scanning techniques such as PET and fMRI scanners which allow researcher to give participants cognitive tasks and observe activity in the different areas of the brain e.g tulvings PET research has revealed different brain activity patterns for different long term memory(there’ s more than one)

-has confirmed the link between brain structures and mental processes, traditionally explore by studying unique brain injuries in individuals e.g Tan

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Strengths of the cognitive approach

-controlled and rigorous methods used to investigate e.g lab studies, cognitive neuroscience

-practical application; cognitive psychology has made important contribution in the field of AI and robots, principles have also been applied to treatment of depression(CBT)

-theoretical models generate testable hypotheses, each assumption can be systematically/scientifically tested: if behaviour matches models predictions, suggests model is valid etc.

-has enabled the confirmation of links between bran structures and internal mental process( cognitive neuroscience)

-soft determinism, we have free will

-inferences allow cognitive psychologists to explore areas inaccessible to other approaches

Limitations of cognitive approach

-relies on interference of mental processes,rather than direct observation of behaviour so can be too abstract and theoretical, they cannot be directly observed

-machine reductionism; such as compar,ing too computer, human mind is much more complicated

-relies on infereces

-lack of mundane realism in lab task

Biological Approach (assumptions)

-suggests that everything psychological is at first biological and so must study biological structures and processes

Influence of biological structures on behaviour

-Endocrine system;releases hormones e.g adrenal gland=fight or flight(enhancing bloodflow)], sex hormones

-brain: centre of all conscious and unconscious thought,e.g limbic system is emotional centre, cerebellum involved in coordinatings muscle movements and balance

Influence of neurochemistry on behaviour

-neurotransmitters are responsible for the occurances of our thought and behaaviour , imbalance of neurochemicals leads to mentsl illness e.g low serotonin OCD

Influence of genes on behaviour

-genes code physical features of an organism biological psychologists argue for psychological features too, phenotype-characteristics

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Twin studies

-twin studies used to investigate wheter certain psychological characteristics have a genteic basic

-analyses concordance rates-the extent to which twins share same characteristics

-monozygotic twins-share 100% of genes

-dixygotic-share about 50% of genes

-assuming environment is the same

Evoloution and behaviour

-darwins theory of natural selection

-explains our physical traits

-e.g aggression in males to protect families ; passed on

Strengths of biological approach

-theories backed up by replicable and objectve studies e.g fMRI brain activiation studioes which show bocas area is active when neurotypical brains produce language , drug trials like soomros meta analysis demonstarte drugs like SSRIs reduced OCD symptons by influencing activities of neurotransmitters

-practical applications:drug therapies

-scientific

limitations of biological approach

• biological process not the sole explanation for behaviour, diathesis stress response explanations refer to both enviromental and biological factors

-biological determinidr5sm

Psychodynamic Approach

Describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

-study of the unconscious mind and unconscious mental drives that develop in childhood, there interactions and how these forcew influence behaviour, personality and mental states

The role of the unconscious

-most of our made is made up of the unconscious(ice berg)

-unconscious mind is storehouse of biological drives and instincts which influences behaviour

-contains also threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed/locked away, may be accessed during dreams, freudian slips etc

-underneath surface of conscious mind is preconscious; can access if desired but not currently in conscious awareness

-behaviours caused by unresolved, unconscious conflicts

Defence mechanisms

-repression

-denial

-displacement

Tripartite personality

ID, EGO,SUPEREGO

ID

-from birth(-18months only id

-the pleasure principle

Ego

-from around 18 months

-reality principle

-uses rational thinking to control demands of the ID, mediator

Super ego

-from around 3

-mainly unconscious

-emerges as child learn values and norms of parent and society

-influences behaviour by inducing guilt when goes against strict superego expectations

Real life links to tripartite personality

-criminal behaviour a result of super ego, too weak compared to ID or a deviant one follows parents

Psychosexual stages

-childhood development occurs in five stages

-each stage has unconscious conflict and if unresolved = fixation

Oral stage

0-1 years

focus of pleasure is the mouth- mothers breast is object of desire

Consequence of unresolved conflict

oral fixation-smoking,biting nail, sarcastic,critical

Anal stage

-1 to 3 years

-focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces

Consequence of unresolved conflict

Anal retentive-perfectionists, obsessive

Anal expulsive-thoughtless, messy

Phallic stage

3 to 6 years

-focus of pleasure is the genital area

-child experiences odeius or electra complex

Latency

earlier conflicts are repressed

Genital stage

sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty

Consequence of unresolved conflict

difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.wq39

How do behaviourist belive we learn

operant and classical conditiooning

Humanistic Approach (assumptions)

human behaviour is complex, so unsuitable for study through traditional scientific methods

holistic approach

What does each stage of the psychosexual stages represent?

The fixation of the libido on different areas of the body

Psychodynamic approach suggests all humans are….

Hedonistic

Psychosexual stages

Oral, anal, phallic , latency, genital

What did Freud believe about fixations?

Leads to certain adult behaviours

What did Freud propose the mind is like?

Iceberg

-above service is conscious mind(logical)

-below is unconscious mind(hedonistic)

What parts of personality are usually in conflict

ID and super ego

What do no boys develop I’m phallic stage?

Oedipus complex

What is the odieus complex

feelings for mother (repressed)

Hatred for father and fear of castration so identify with father

What study supports the Oedipus complex

Little hans

Little hans case

-5year old who developed phobia of horses after seeing one collapse

-concluded this was displacement of repressed fear of father onto horses

-horses merely a symbolic representation of hand real unconscious fear

What do girls experience during phallic stage

Electra complex

What is the electra complex?

-penis envy

-desire father as primary love object of the peninsula

-hate mother

-Give up desire if father over time with a desire for a baby( now identifying with mother)

Strengths

-significant influxes;emphasis on child oh trauma influenced bowlby to build upon this to develop attachment theories

-among the first to develop a somewhat scientific concept of the unconscious mind

-intuitive appeal ( face validity)

-practical applications; psychoanalysis

Limitations

-little scientific credibility, little Hans bias?

-falsifiability; cannot prove as correct or incorrect using empirical testing

-psychoanalysis bad= those with schizophrenia, not with reality

-psychic determinism ;no such thing as accident

How would we describe humanists explanation of behaviour

Holistic

Maslows hierarchy of needs

Outlines a hierarchy/ sequence of human needs to motivate our behaviour in order to achieve self actualisation

Self actualisation

The desire to grow prow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential-becoming what you're capable off

Why is congruence important?

If too big of a gap exists between perceived and ideal self then person will experience state of incongruence and self actualisation will not be possible

Why won’t self actualisation be possible if there is incongruence?

Negative feelings of self worth will arise

How to becoming congruent

-aspire to be a more realistic ‘ideal self’

What is the humanistic approach to therapy

Client-centred therapy

Client-centred thearapu

-Emphasis importance of present and future over past

-attempts to achieve congruence

-client seen as expert rather than the therapist; the therapist instead provide support , facilitating the clients journey and resolving own issues

- therapist also give the unconditional positive regards that they may not be receiving from friends and family

Limitations

-non scientific=lack of empirical evidence

-idea of free will may be an illusion, biological and environmental factors?

-culturally bias(westernised)

Strengths

-holistic

-optimistic

-practical application of client centred therapy