Research Methods

For VCE psychology

Aim

A statement outlining the purpose of the investigation.

Research Hypothesis

A testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables

Controlled experiment

An experimental investigation to test the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst controlling all other variables.

Variable

Something that can vary in amount or type and is measurable.

Controlled variable

One that is considered to have an effect on the dependent variable in an experiment so it needs to be held constant to remove its potential effects

Independent variable

The variable for which quantities are manipulated by the researcher, and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable the researcher measures in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable

Operationalising variables

Specifying exactly how the variables will be manipulated or measured in a particular controlled experiment

Correlational study

Used to investigate the relationship that exists between variables without any control over the setting in which the relationship occurs or any manipulation by the researcher.

Population

The entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn and to which the researcher will seek to generalise the results of their investigation

Sample

A subset or part of the population that is selected for research purposes.

Sampling

The process by which a subset or part of the population is selected for an investigation.

Random sampling

A sampling technique that ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample.

Stratified sampling

The process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups in such a way that each subgroup is represented.

Convenience sampling

Selecting a sample of individuals who are readily available

List the types of research methods

Experimental methods, correlational methods, and descriptive methods

What do experimental methods do?

Investigate what causes an outcome

What do correlational methods do?

Measure relationship between variables.

What do descriptive methods do?

Describe what is occurring

List the types of descriptive methods

Observational studies, self reports, case studies.

List the experimental research methods

Laboratory experiments, field experiments

List the non-experimental research methods

Case studies, observational studies, questionnaires, interviews, correlational studies, simulation studies.

Self report

A participant’s answers to questions presented by the researcher

Observational study

Collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs without any intervention or manipulation of the behaviour being observed.

Case study

An intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, activity, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation. In psychology, the case that is the subject of study is usually a person.

Advantages of convenience sampling

The most cost and time effective.

Disadvantages of convenience sampling

The most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample, thereby making it harder for researchers to generalise results to the population.

Advantages of random sampling

Can be more representative than convenience sampling, reduces experimenter bias, and can make a fairly representative sample when the sample size is large enough.

Cross-sectional method

A type of observational research method used to analyse data from a population at a specific point in time.

Longitudinal study

A research method that involves repeated observations of the same individuals over a long period of time

Disadvantages of random sampling

May be time consuming, may not create a representative sample if the sample is small.

Advantages of stratified sampling

The most likely to produce a representative sample.

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

Can be time consuming and expensive, and can be demeaning on the researcher to select the most appropriate strata to account for.

Extraneous variable

A variable other than the IV that may cause a change in the DV and therefore may affect the results.

Confounding variable

A variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV which cannot be separated from that of the IV.

What are the 7 ethical guidelines?

Debriefing, voluntary participation, informed consent, deception, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, no lasting harm.

What is the acronym for the 7 ethical principles?

Dogs volunteer information depending who can no.

Beneficence

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms.

Integrity

Searching for knowledge and understanding, while reporting all results honestly, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public understanding.

Justice

The moral duty to ensure fairness in considering different needs, sharing benefits, and avoiding placing unfair burdens on any group.

Non-maleficence

Involves avoiding the causations of harm.

Respect

Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have value, giving due regard to the rights and welfare of the subjects and to ensure they are empowered and protected.

Confidentiality

The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity in individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

Debriefing

Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions.

Informed consent procedures

Ensure that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risk, before agreeing to participate in the study.

Use of deception in research

Is only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour whilst participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment.

Voluntary participation

Ensures that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

Withdrawal rights

Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty.

Reliability

The extent to which a measure produces results that are consistent, dependable and stable.

Validity

How much a measure accurately measures what it is supposed to be measuring, and that the results represent true findings among individuals in the samples population.

Internal validity

The extent to which an investigation actually investigated what it set out to investigate and/or claims to have investigated

External validity

The extent to which the results obtained for a study can be applied beyond the sample that generated them, specifically to individuals in a different setting and over time.

Generalisation

A decision about how widely the results of an investigation can be applied, particularly to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn.

Cognitive development

Changes in an individual’s mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, perception, learning, memory and use of language.

How can cognitive development be influenced by environmental and social factors

If the infant is exposed or not exposed to certain stimuli, it can help or hinder cognitive and social development. For example, the quality of the family's home environment promotes cognitive development through the provision of enriching learning opportunities

Atypical development

Development that is not typical, and it differs markedly in some way from what is expected in typical development.

ethical concepts acronym

Bears Inspire Just Narwhals Regularly.

typical behaviour

Behaviour that would usually occur and is appropriate and expected in a given situation

Eriksons theory

His theory describes the impact of certain social and cultural experiences on our social, emotional and personality development at various stages of the entire life span. He believed that social development occurs through the combined effects of psychological processes and their life experiences, particularly interactions with other people.

Stage 1 Eriksons

trust vs mistrust

Stage 2 Eriksons

autonomy vs shame and doubt

Stage 3 Eriksons

initiative vs guilt

Stage 4 Eriksons

industry vs inferiority

Stage 5 eriksons

identity vs role confusion

Stage 1 Eriksons age group

birth to 18 months

Stage 2 Eriksons age group

18 months to 3 years

Stage 3 Eriksons age group

3 to 5

Stage 4 Eriksons age group

5 to 12

Stage 5 Eriksons age group

12 to 18

secure attachment

Shows a balance between dependence and exploration, uses the caregiver as a home, or safe base from which to venture out and explore an unfamiliar environment, but shows some distress and decreases exploration when the caregiver departs. When the caregiver returns, the infant is enthusiastic and seeks physical contact with them.

Insecure avoidant attachment

The infant does not seek closeness or contact with the caregiver and treats them much like a stranger, and rarely cries when the caregiver leaves the room and ignores the caregiver upon their return. Result of neglectful or abusive caregivers.

Insecure resistant attachment

Anxious even when their caregiver is near, very upset when separated from the caregiver. Upon caregivers return, the infant approaches them, cries to be picked up, then squirms or fights to get free, as though it is not sure about what it really wants. Results from caregivers who are not very responsive to their infant’s needs.

Disorganised attachment

Insecure attachment when infants show inconsistent or odd and contradictory behaviours during separation from and reunion with their caregivers. In adulthood, people who formed a disorganised attachment tend to find it difficult to have close relationships, to open up to others or to seek out help or other forms of support.

Experience dependent plasticity

Brain change that modifies some part of its neuronal structure that is already present. Depends on exposure to various environmental experiences that are unique to each individual and may occur at any time during the life span.

Frontal lobe structure

The largest of the four lobes and is located in the upper forward half of each cerebral hemisphere.

Frontal lobe functions

Sophisticated mental abilities, such as problem solving and decision making, initiating and controlling voluntary movements, and producing articulate speech that is clear and fluent.

Primary motor cortex role

Initiates and controls voluntary movements through its control of skeletal muscles. Is contralaterally organised

Where is brocas area

in the left frontal lobe

what does brocas area do

Has a crucial role in the production of articulate speech, and coordinates messages to your lips, jaws, tongue and vocal cords to enable you to state the words clearly and fluently.

Where is wernickes area

left temporal lobe

what does wernickes area do

has a crucial role in the comprehension of speech, and is also involved in the production of meaningful and coherent speech.

where is the parietal lobe

located behind the frontal lobe and occupies the upper back half of the brain, but not the rearmost area

what does the parietal lobe do

receives and processes somatosensory, information, including touch and temperature and information about muscle movement and the body’s position. Also has association areas involved in functions such as attention, and spatial reasoning

FMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging

A neuroimaging technique that detects and records brain activity by measuring oxygen consumption across the brain, without exposing participants to radioactive tracers. It is a functional technique, and it can be done to 2 people simultaneously.