Central Nervous System and Learning Processes

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering the key concepts related to the central nervous system and learning processes.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and the spinal cord.

Somatic Division of the Peripheral Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements and communication with sense organs.

Autonomic Division of the Peripheral Nervous System

Concerned with involuntary body functions that occur without our awareness.

Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System

Prepares the body for 'fight or flight' during emergencies.

Parasympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System

Responsible for calming the body and helping it 'rest and digest'.

Neuronal Communication

Internally, neurons communicate electrically; with other neurons, they communicate chemically via neurotransmitters.

Soma (Cell Body)

Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and maintains life processes of the cell.

Dendrites

Act as receivers for messages from other neurons.

Axon

A long tube that carries electrical information from the soma to the terminal buttons.

Myelin Sheath

Surrounds an axon providing insulation and speeding up the transmission of electrical impulses.

Terminal Buttons

Where neurotransmitters are released from the neuron to communicate with the next cell.

Synapse

The tiny gap between a sending neuron and a receiving neuron.

Glia (Glial Cells)

Supporting cells that provide nutrients, insulation, and cleanup for neurons in the CNS.

Resting Potential

The typical electrical charge of a neuron at rest, which is -70 mV.

Threshold for Action Potential

A neuron's charge must reach -55 mV to trigger an action potential.

All-or-None Law

States that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Depolarization Ion

Sodium ($Na^{+}$) flows into the axon.

Repolarization Ion

Potassium ($K^{+}$) flows out of the axon to restore a negative charge.

Absolute Refractory Period

A phase during which the neuron is unable to fire another action potential.

Glutamate

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, heavily involved in memory.

GABA

Acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, reducing the likelihood of neuron firing.

Acetylcholine

Influences arousal, selective attention, and is involved in every muscle movement.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter whose depletion is a hallmark of Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

Primarily associated with the regulation of sleep, mood, eating, and pain.

Endorphins

Provide natural pain relief and are similar to chemical painkillers.

Reuptake

The process where excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the axon terminal.

Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters

Hormones travel through the bloodstream rather than across synapses.

Pituitary Gland

Known as the 'master gland' of the endocrine system.

Adrenal Glands

Release adrenaline and cortisol during emotional arousal and stress.

Spinal Cord

The thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body.

Corpus Callosum

A bundle of nerve fibers that allows the left and right hemispheres of the brain to communicate.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for executive functions like planning, organization, and motor movement.

Parietal Lobe

Specialized for touch perception, including pressure, pain, and temperature.

Wernicke's Area

Located in the temporal lobe, responsible for speech comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

Located at the rear of the brain, specialized for vision.

Thalamus

Acts as a relay station, sending information from sense organs to the primary sensory cortex.

Hypothalamus

Regulates internal bodily states and controls the pituitary gland.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system responsible for emotions like fear, excitement, and arousal.

Hippocampus

Critical for spatial memory and forming new long-term memories.

Cerebellum

Responsible for balance, coordination, and learning motor skills.

Medulla

Regulates vital functions like breathing and heart rate.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to grow, change, and compensate for damage over time.

Neurogenesis

The process of forming new neurons in the adult brain.

Pruning

The process where the brain loses unused synaptic connections during development.

Learning

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers an unlearned reflex/response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus after repeated pairing.

Extinction in Classical Conditioning

The conditioned response weakens by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a rest period.

Stimulus Generalization

The phenomenon where a conditioned response appears after a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not to other similar stimuli.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

States that behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing the frequency of a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus following that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Increases behavior by removing an undesirable stimulus following the behavior.

Positive Punishment

To decrease a behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus.

Negative Punishment

To decrease a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement that follows a set number of behaviors.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement that provides rewards after an unpredictable number of behaviors.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Rewards behavior after a specific, fixed amount of time has passed.

Variable Interval Schedule

Rewards behavior after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that are innately satisfying, like food or water.

Secondary Reinforcers

Acquire their value through repeated association with primary reinforcers, e.g., money.

Shaping

An operant conditioning technique of rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

Learning that occurs by watching the behavior of others.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

Carry information from the environment to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

Carry information from the central nervous system to the muscles to produce movement.

Interneurons

Connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

Broca's Area

Responsible for the physical production of language, located in the frontal lobe.

Fully Formed Human Brain Age

Around $25$ years.