zoo midterm

Chemistry

Chemistry

is necessary in the study of zoology in order to understand the basic structures that compromise a living organism

atom

• The cell is made up of

• is the smallest particle of matter

protons, neutrons, and electrons

atom is made up of smaller (subatomic) particles, three of which are

compound

When two or more atoms of the same or different elements are joined together, they form a

element

• made up of atom is the most basic form of matter.

• substance that cannot be separated into simpler substance by chemical means

92, 26

there are _ naturally occurring elements and — artificial ones

atomic number

is used to determined the order of the elements

ionic or covalent bonds

A compound can be held together by

Atomic variants

are the isotopes of an element that differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus

ions

are atomic variants with either a net negative or net positive charge brought about by the difference between the number of electrons

atomic bonds

Elements connect with one another via

covalent bonds, ionic bonds, metallic bonds

three types of atomic bonds

single bond

occurs when one electron pair is shared between two atoms

double bonds

occur when two electron pairs are shared between two atoms

covalent bond

Most common type, when pairs of electrons are shared by two or more atoms

ionic bonds

A complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another

metallic bonds

A force that holds metal together, between two or more metals where outermost electron shell overlaps

water

• is such an extensively utilized resource has immeasurable importance in the lives of organism, such shortage is a threat to the survival of species.

6 weeks

man can live for __ without food

3 days

man can survive for only __ without water

1. water has high heat of vaporization

2. water molecules exhibit a high degree of cohesion and adhesion

3. water exhibit a high surface tension.

4. ice floats

5. water is referred to as an excellent solvent because so many substances can dissolve

6. water has a slight tendency to fall apart into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions

characteristics of water

cohesion

tendency of water molecules to cling to each other

adhesion

tendency of unlike molecules to cling to each other

tension

• tendency of molecules at the surface of a liquid to cohere to each other and not to the other forces

• some organisms can utilize this property and literally walk on water

Hydrogen bonding

• is mainly responsible for the thermal properties of water

• each molecule can form __ with four other water molecules

15%

at melting point, about __ of the hydrogen bonds break

heat of vaporization

is the energy required to vaporize one mole of liquid at a pressure of one atmosphere

heat capacity

is the amount of energy that should be added or removed from one water to change the temperature by one degree celcius

carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N)

The major constituents of most biomolecules are

70%

Water is a very important component of the cell; it make up as much as __ of its weight.

nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids

The major complex biomolecules are

calcium, sodium, potassium, iron, and magnesium

elements such as __ play key roles in innumerable biological processes vital to the sustenance of life.

nucleotides, amino acids, monosaccharide, fatty acids, and glycerol

These complex molecules are made up of various building blocks:

Carbon

is the element that life on earth is based upon. Its bonding versatility is its key characteristic, allowing it to accept four other atoms.

carbohydrates, fats, protein, and nucleic acids.

The carbon or organic compounds:

Carbohydrates

are the most abundant organic compounds in the biosphere. They function as energy sources and structural components of cells

monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharide

There are four chemical groupings of the carbohydrates;

Monosaccharides

• Are monomers or simple sugars. Examples are glucose, fructose, and galactose.

• All three have the chemical formula C6 H12 O6 , but they differ in the arrangement of their individual atoms and have different properties

Disaccharides

• Are composed of two simple sugars bonded together by the glycosidic bonds.

• Examples are lactose or milk sugar, sucrose, and maltose.

Oligosaccharides

Are made up of anywhere from 3 to 10 monosaccharides units linked by glycosidic bonds.

Polysaccharides

• May consist of thousands of monomers of glucose or other simple sugars.

• Examples include starch, cellulose, chitin, and glycogen.

starch

carbohydrate storage in plants

cellulose

the most abundant biological molecule in nature

chitin

the major substance in exoskeleton of arthropods and mollusks

glycogen

the main storage form of carbohydrates in animals

Lipids

• include fats, oils, waxes, steroids.

• They function as energy storage, as components of membranes, as insulation barriers to avoid thermal, electrical, and physical shock, as lipoprotein, as waterproof coatings, and as chemical messengers.

lipoprotein

that facilitates the transport of lipids in the blood

Simple Lipids

are esters of fatty acids and alcohols.

triglycerides and waxes

2 kinds of Simple Lipids

Triglycerides or neutral fats

Consist of a glycerol moiety with each hydroxyl group esterified to a fatty acid. Commonly found in adipose tissue, olive oil, lard, etc.

Animal triglycerides

are composed of high proportions of saturated fatty acids. Richly found in bacon fat and lard

Plant triglycerides

have a low melting point and are liquid at room temperature due to the higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Vegetable fats, olive oil, and peanut oil are examples

waxes

• Found in the surfaces of fruits, leaves, feathers, and animal fur. They are very important as they have the property of repelling water.

• Composed of esters of long chain fatty acids. These can be found in beeswax, head oil of sperm whale, cerumen, carnuba oil, and lanolin

Compound Lipids

contains substances other than alcohol and fatty acids

phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids

3 kinds of Compound Lipids

Phospholipids

• Contain glycerol, fatty acids, and phosphoric acid bound in ester linkages to a nitrogenous base.

• The cell membrane surrounding every cell are made of bilayer of __

Sphingolipids

Contain sphingosine as the alcohol backbone. An example is the sphingomyelin found in nervous tissue, brain, and red blood cells.

Glycolipids

• With carbohydrates attached into it.

• They are important components of the plasma membrane cells.

• They serve as recognition sites for specific chemicals, help maintain the stability of the membrane, and attach cells to each other to form tissues

Derived Lipids

which cannot be strictly classified as either simple or compound.

terpenes, sterols, and fatty acids

examples of derived lipids

Terpenes

• The primary constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers.

• Found in plant pigments carotene and lycopene. These vitamins are essential for blood clotting mechanisms, maintenance of structural integrity, and sight.

sterols

• Such as cholesterol, androgens and estrogens (sex hormones), adrenal corticosteroids, ergosterol (found in plant tissues, yeast, fungi), and 7-dehydrocholesterol have important roles in cellular structure, cellular communication, and metabolism.

fatty acids

Are long-chain aliphatic carboxylic acid products, resulting from hydrolysis of lipids. they can be classified based on the length of their carbon chain, importance in the diet or number of double bonds contained

Arachidonic acid

is polyunsaturated fatty acid for growth and repair of skeletal muscles; protects the brain from oxidative stress

Prostaglandin

are fatty acid derivatives that have several hormonal regulatory functions

proteins

• almost all biological processes require the presence of

• have many mainly roles in cells, mediating and participating in several biological processes

amino acids

are the building blocks of proteins

Structural Proteins

• make up some components of animal tissues, which is the most abundant protein found in the human body

• from cell parts like collagen is the most abundant protein found in the human body.

Collagen

is a type of structural protein that is fibrous in nature. It gives strength and support to tissues such as skin and bone that undergo continual wear and tear.

Regularly Proteins

• control numerous cell processes.

• There are proteins that bind to segment of DNA and bring about gene regulation.

enzymes

• facilitate many chemical reactions.

• They do this by lowering the amount of energy needed to start the reaction while not being permanently altered in the process.

hormones

are chemical messengers.

Transport proteins

carry other substances through cells or from cell to cell.

Antibodies

are highly specific proteins responsible for detecting a foreign substance or " antigen ". The body produces a specific antibody to respond to an antigen to inactivate it.

immunoglobulins

Antibodies, also known as

Fluid balance

is also regulated by proteins, primarily albumin, and blood plasma. Proteins consist of long chains of amino acids. The building blocks of proteins are made up of one or more polypeptides. There are usually 100 to 10,000 amino acid in a typical protein molecule.

Primary structure

is the order of amino acids in the polypeptides strand

secondary structure

refers to the local three-dimensional folding of polypeptides chain in protein.

alpha helix and beta sheet

are two common secondary structure motifs

tertiary structure

is formed when the distant segments of a primary structure and the relationships of the side chains are bound in the three-dimensional folding of the entire polypeptides chain

quaternary structure

involves the fitting together of two or more polypeptide chains, eventually forming a functional protein

nucleic acids

are large organic molecules with the chief function of carrying the genetic information in the form of code.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

two main types of nucleic acids

Nucleotide

the building block of nucleic acids, is made up of nitrogenous base, either purine or pyrimidine, pentose sugar and a phosphate group

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)

is a coenzyme made up of two nucleotides joined in their phosphate groups

Uridine Triphosphate (UTP)

uracil linked to ribose and esterified with tri-phosphoric acid, is a great importance in the biosynthesis of glycogen and sucrose

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

adenine and three phosphate groups attached to a pentose sugar, is a multifunctional nucleotides considered as the energy molecule

cell

• All living creatures are composed of__

• the basic unit of life.

• For survival, it performs various activities.

• It grows, reproduces, and matures

Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells

2 TYPES OF CELLS

Eukaryotic cells

• generally larger and have a very distinct nucleus that is clearly surrounded by a nuclear envelope.

• They also have numerous membrane-bound organelles found in cytoplasm. Histones, proteins associated with genetic material, are also present.

• Examples are: Plant cell. Animal cell.

prokaryotic cells

• lack nuclear envelope and membrane-bound organelles:

• example is bacteria cell

ORGANELLES

__are membrane-bound are cellular structures that are enclosed or covered by a biological membrane.

Nuclear envelope

surrounds and protects a eukaryotic cell's DNA and its surrounding nucleoplasm

cell membrane

• is the outer covering of the cell and functions as a selective barrier that regulates the entrance and exit of substances into the cell.

• is extremely important as it helps regulate substances that enter and exit the cell and serves as a solvent for integral membrane proteins that run across the bilayer

the classical model and the fluid mosaic model

cell membrane can be describes in two models

Hugh Davson and James Danielli

proposed the classical model

classical model

characterizes the cell membrane as a phospholipid bilayer sandwhiched by a coat of protein on either surface.

fluid mosaic model

states that the lipid bilayer is fluid and that individual phospholipids diffuse rapidly throughout the surface of the membrane.

Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson

proposed the fluid mosaic model

glyocalyx

• is the external coating of the cell membrane and is made up of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.

• It provides protection, enables cell-to-cell recognition, contains receptor sites for enzymes and hormones, allows the cell to respond to changes in electrical potential, and acts as a filtration barrier.