Evolution of the Health Profes - B Exam 2

How does Gregory Higby describe American medical care in the antebellum period (1812-1861)?

In a state of disarray

In the antebellum period, medical licensing laws were repealed and alternative healers

(sectarians) became accepted.

True, in the antebellum period, medical licensing laws were repealed and alternative halers (sectarians) became accepted.

In the antebellum period, who most typically treated Americans when they got sick?

Americans treated themselves.

How did medicine reflect the ideas of "Jacksonian America" in the antebellum period?

Americans believed in the idea of "every man his own physician.”

Before the late 1800s, American physicians____________

compounded and dispensed many of their prescriptions.

After 1812, the number of physicians who dispensed their own medications was decreasing.

True

In the antebellum period, drug preparations for medications

varied a great deal, being made in a variety of ways.

In "Sanitary Reform in New York City: Stephen Smith and the Passage of the Metropolitan

Health Bill, Gert Brieger" argues that the Metropolitan Health Bill of 1866

created a new health department that implemented significant new public health

measures.

What were living conditions like in New York City between 1820 and 1866?

Bad, similar to most of American cities.

Provide three examples that illustrate the living conditions and health conditions in New York

City before 1866 (written answer)

Overcrowding, Poor sanitation, Disease outbreaks

Who of the following was in favor of the health bill?

The New York Sanitary Association

In the 1850s, the City Inspector in New York City

disagreed with John Griscom about city sanitation.

Near the bottom of page 411, Gert Brieger refers to "a growing social and political cleavage

between New York City and the rest of the state." Was it the city or the state government that

was an obstacle that blocked effective public health policy in the 1850s and early 1860s?

City

According to Gert Brieger, the Chadwick Report

was written and researched by a group of physicians.

According to Gert Brieger, public health reformers like Stephen Smith were believers in germ

theory, rejecting earlier medical beliefs about sanitation and humoral balance.

False

According to Kenneth Ludmerer, the number of medical schools increased following 1910 when

the Flexner Report was published.

False

According to Kenneth Ludmerer, medical schools in the mid-19th century were

for-profit and short, without any quality-control standards.

Reform and improvement in medical education began in a significant way when?

1870s

What was included in the "transformation of medical education" that Ludmerer explains

occurred when medical education reformed?

a shift away from rote memorization towards critical thinking.

Flexner believed that medical schools should be affiliated with universities rather than

independent.

True

Which medical school became the model for others when it opened in the 1890s?

Johns Hopkins

Abraham Flexner believed that "every man could be his own physician," and rejected the idea

that physicians only needed to learn by doing, rather than having to rigorously study and learn.

False

Abraham Flexner believed that medical schools needed to conduct medical research as well as

providing education

True

According to Ludmerer, medicine currently differs from what it was like when Flexner's report in

which of the following ways?

Specialization in medicine has expanded a great deal.

After the Civil War ended in 1865, how did the United States transform?

From home care to care in public institutions.

What does Baer claim was central to the role of the modern nurse as the profession emerged in

the 1870s?

A good income.

When nurse training schools opened in the late 1800s, they were based in hospitals.

True

Since nurses were not in the role of diagnosing patients, the development of scientific

knowledge (including germ theory) did not affect their work significantly.

False

In the 1890s, nurse leaders like Isabel Hampton and Adelaide Nutting believed that which type

of school was best for educating nurses?

University-based schools of nursing with a three-year curriculum.

According to Baer, when schools of nursing started at universities in the early 20th century,

most hospital-based nurses training schools quickly closed.

False

Scientific research and nursing theory became important and established in nursing at what

time?

In the early 21st century

Ellen Baer argues that gender has had a significant effect on the development of nursing.

True

According to Mary Korr, Gardner Swartz was well known for

his sanitary inspections, as he worked to make food and water clean and healthy.

Between 1880 and 1905, "nostrums and patent medicines" were well-regulated, with their

ingredients listed on labels.

False

The "Poison Squad" refers to

volunteers who helped determine the harmfulness of substances added to food.

The 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act is similar to the 1910 Flexner Report because:

both provided national standards, one in education, the other in food.

In the early 1900s, what was the status of the pharmacy profession?

Pharmacists were experiencing a crisis in the profession, with their traditional role

changing.

In 1927 with the first "major study of pharmacy practice," what aspects of pharmacy were

emphasized as central to education in the field?

Basic sciences and pharmacology

A six-year PharmD became required in the field to practice at what time?

Early 2000's when a majority of pharmacists agreed

According to Urick and Meigs, when was there a "crisis within the community pharmacy"?

During the "Soda Fountain Era" (1920-49)

During the "soda fountain era" (1920-1949) it was typical for pharmacists to give patients advice

about their prescriptions.

False

During the "Lick, Stick, Pour and More Era" (1950-79) the percentage of prescriptions that

required compounding shifted from 25% to 1%.

True

In the Pharmaceutical Care Era, pharmacists struggled to find the time to fill the role of care

provider

True

How has the pharmacy profession changed in the "Post-Pharmaceutical Care Era" (2010-

present)

Both options- Pharmacists doing residencies has increased, Immunizations and patient-care services have increased

Emily Abel, author of “Taking the Cure to the Poor: Patients’ Responses to NYC’s Tuberculosis

Program, 1894 to 1918,” uses what sources in her essay?

Records of a charity organization that helped tuberculosis patients.

What perspective does Emily Abel claim is mostly missing from public health?

The perspective of targeted populations experiencing the public health intervention.

How had the prevalence of tuberculosis changed by 1900?

It had shifted from being a disease that affected everyone to being concentrated among

the poor.

Emily Abel argues that patients didn’t comply with public health measures called for by charity

workers because they had “competing needs” that made it difficult to comply sometimes.

True

Emily Abel shows that New York City residents who had tuberculosis who were richer and could

afford their own private physicians:

were not required by law to disinfect their homes.

This article appeared in what journal?

a. Bulletin of the History of Medicine

b. New England Journal of Medicine

c. Journal of American History

New England Journal of Medicine

The authors show that racial disparities are

because of racism

WEB Du Bois and Frederick Hoffman agreed about the reasons for racial disparities.

False

The Philadelphia Negro is a

report on the health of Black Philadelphians based on collected data.

When Du Bois' book was published in 1899, it was marginalized by the press and by mainstream

medicine.

True

Du Bois believed that racial differences were fixed and unchangeable.

False

Which medical societies explicitly excluded Black physicians from joining in the 20th century,

before 1968?

Local and state organizations.

The authors of this article believe that physicians and physicians-in-training need to see racial

disparities as

existing because of structural racism.

On the timeline for class so far, we have two different time periods, the “Jacksonian

Era” (early 1800s-1860s) and the “Progressive Era” (1870s-1920s). How did health care

change from one era to the other? Answer the question using at least two substantive

examples and two sources from class.

Healthcare in the Jacksonian Era was unorganized and unregulated, with many different people practicing medicine. Doctors, apothecaries, and even untrained individuals were involved in making and selling medicine (Higby). There were few educational requirements, and medical care was inconsistent and often unreliable. In contrast, during the Progressive Era, healthcare became more professional and regulated. Medical education improved significantly after the Flexner Report, which pushed for higher standards and scientific training (Ludmerer). This led to the closure of low-quality medical schools and better-trained physicians. The government also began to regulate medicine more closely. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 helped ensure that drugs were safe and properly labeled (Korr). These changes increased trust in healthcare and improved patient safety. Overall, healthcare shifted from a disorganized system to a more structured and professional field.

How did public health in the United States develop from the 1860s-1920s? Using

examples from at least two course readings, discuss how the field developed, making

sure to consider regulations and medical beliefs of public health leaders and workers.

Public health in the United States developed significantly between the 1860s and 1920s as the government began to take a more active role. In the mid-1800s, cities like New York had poor sanitation, which led to the spread of disease. Reformers like Stephen Smith pushed for improvements, leading to the Metropolitan Health Bill and the creation of organized public health systems (Brieger). These efforts focused on sanitation, waste control, and disease prevention. Over time, public health also began to address specific diseases, such as tuberculosis. Programs were created to treat patients, but not all were successful due to social and economic barriers (Abel). Many patients struggled to follow treatment because of poverty and living conditions. This showed that public health needed to consider people’s daily lives, not just medical treatment. Overall, public health evolved from basic sanitation efforts to more organized programs aimed at disease prevention and population health.