qualitative research in neuroscience

qualitative data

• verbal or written information

• hasn’t been converted into score

• non-numerical

where does quantitative/qualitative research stem from

different philosophies

philosophies are about

how to best explore human phenomena

source of debate in literature

divergence in

• philosophies

• ensuing methodologies

quantitative research stems from

positivism

positivism

phenomenon relevant to science =

• measured

• quantified

qualitative research

• more phenomenological in approach

• emphasises meanings that people ascribe to life experiences

researchers need to consider what when selecting quantitative vs qualitative?

most appropriate to research objectives

nature of quantitative vs qualitative

qualitative - more exploratory

quantitative - confirmatory pursuits

example of confirmatory pursuit

theory testing

6 points of qualitative research design

• exploratory nature

• contextual understanding

• subjectivity and reflexivity

• small and purposive sampling

• in-depth data collection

• iterative data analysis

obtaining qualitative data

• anecdotal: informal reports during: experiment, observation, retrospective insight

• complementary observations: events important for understanding research BUT were outside of research design

• self report: surveys, interviews

what is self-report method

any method that asks participants to report on themselves

4 examples of self-report method

• questionnaires,

• psychological assessment scales,

• interviews,

• verbal protocols

data gathering for self-report method is done through?

• direct questioning (can be face-to-face)

• telephone

• mail

• internet

self-report method measurement instruments

• open questions: provide your own response

• closed questions: choose from a set of responses

advantage vs. disadvantage of closed questions

• can produce quantifiable measures

• force respondents to choose an answer that may not necessarily represent how they feel

surveys

structured questionnaire/interview → large sample

whole population is captured in a survey

census

2 main purposes of a survey

• describe what people think/do to which extent

• test hypothesis

surveys that test hypothesis are

analytical

data collection methods used in guest speaker stroke study

• survey

• medical record

data collection instruments for stroke study

• WHOQOL

• Barthel Index

• Charlson Comorbidity Index

• Glasglow Coma Scale

cig study type of study

time-series study

why was cig study a time-series study?

• time-trend population-based analysis

• 2004-2017

2 types of samples commonly used in surveys

• panel

• focus group

panel

• specially selected group of people

• can be asked to provide info every time when it’s required

disadvantage of panel

can start to become different from population of interest due to the roles they play as members in the study

example of panels starting to become different

start watching excessive amounts of TV because they are being asked about TV preferences

focus group

• group of individuals with common interest

• brought together for collective interview

advantage of focus group

• efficient; generate large amount of data in 1 session

• no need of multiple one-on-one interviews

• cross-stimulation of ideas among participants

Why manage focus groups carefully?

To ensure all participants can contribute to the discussion

What is one risk in a focus group discussion?

Some participants may dominate the conversation intentionally or unintentionally

structured interviews

• questions and procedures identical for everyone

• quick to administer

• more generalisable results

• less influenced by characteristics of the interviewer

• data is less cubersome for analysis

disadvantage of structured interviews

• places constraints on both interviewer and respondent

• interviewers cannot explore issues that may arise during interviews

• respondents cannot fully explain their point of view

unstructured interviews

• conversational style

• open-ended questions

• informal/natural atmosphere

• richer data generated

• greater flexibility for interviewer and respondent

disadvantage of unstructured interviews

• process is greatly influenced by interviewer characteristics

• results may not be highly generalisable

effects of interpersonal variables in interviews

• interviewer’s style/presentation affects quality of info obtained

• gender/ethnicity of interviewer/respondent impacts process

examples of effects of interpersonal variables in interviews

• men were more likely to discuss usage of prostitutes with older interviewer

• more likely to discuss casual sex with male interviewers vs. female

• performance ratings given by participants affected by perceived race - different accents

interpersonal variable factors that may affect the outcome of interview

• formal role: is interviewer seen as authority figure?

• personal qualities of both parties: some subjects are harder to interview, some interviewers are bad at interviewing

• social desirability: answer what they think they should be saying, not what is consistent with everyday behavior

• evaluative cues given by interviewer: non-verbal cues provide unwanted feedback → influences answers

when gathering qualitative data, the researcher is

an active participant in the research process

in a qualitative interview, the interviewer needs to

• analyse dialogue in relation to research objectives

• adjust dialogue to match objectives

common occurrence in qualitative interviewing

emergence of a point not mentioned in previous interviews

what happens when a new point emerges in interviews?

• new point is incorporated into subsequent interviews

• previous interviews are revisited whenever possible

9 beneficial guidelines for qualitative interviewing

• let participants know what to expect (info=less anxiety)

• ensure anonymity and confidentiality

• establish + maintain rapport

• use the participants’ language

• neutrality

• listen attentively

• show interest

• respond to non-verbal communication

• employ natural questioning

6 types of interviews

• non-directive

• informal

• semi-structured

• structured but open-ended

• fully structured

• clinical

non-directive interviews interviewer

• interviewer does not direct discussion

• non-judgemental listening to respondent only

when to use non-directive

• collecting data forming part of case study

• therapy sessions

  • self-awareness

  • deal with personal problems

who is likely to use non-directive interviews

• psychotherapists

• counsellors

characteristics of informal interview

• relaxed atmosphere

• interviewee can express themselves on own terms

job of interviewer in informal interview

• keep interviewee on topic

• use prompts to solicit more detailed info

how to make informal interviews more effective

• interviewer listens properly

• intelligent comments

• respond appropriately

• non-judgemental

what not to do in informal interview

act cool/distant/impersonal → makes interviewee anxious and uncomfortable

benefit of informal interview

reduces anxiety of interviewee because interviewer is more responsive

semi-structured

• informal but guided

• outline of topics to be covered BUT no pre-set questions

aim of semi-structured interview

• ensure all information is obtained

advantages of semi-structured interview

• natural conversation flow

• freedom to explore new avenues of thought

• flexibility in follow-up with certain elements of discourse

drawbacks of semi-structured interview

• weak reliability across respondents

drawbacks of semi-structured interview may not be considered a drawback if

looking at it from a non-positivist perspective

structured but open-ended

• pre-set open ended questions in predetermined order → everyone

• respondent: still free to answer in any way

benefit of giving pre-set questions in predetermined order to everyone?

minimise effect of interpersonal variables that influence 2 way convos

fully structured

• follows pre-set and ordered list of questions

• answer options are fixed

advantage vs disadvantage of fully structured

• makes analysis easier

• somewhat limiting - respondents can’t explain their answers

clinical

• has clear goals - testing hypothesis

• uses non-standardised procedures

common strategy in clinical interviews

ask respondents similar questions in multiple ways

interview medium

many avenues available for questioning

telephone interviews

• good for reaching busy people

• greater anonymity

• cost effective

• respondents less likely to be influenced by interviewer

• interviewer can’t read non-verbal cues

conducting surveys electronically

• via email or internet

• time-saving

• cost-efficient

major criticism of conducting surveys electronically

• likely to yield biased sample - users differ from general population

• many people don’t have internet at home

• people who are likely to do surveys online tend to be lefties and more likely to try new things

• limited generalisability

proportion of people who don’t have internet at home

40-50%

mail surveys

• respondents less concerned about social desirability

• more honest answers

• researcher can’t clarify questions or ask for elaboration

• low response return rate

likert scale

• respondents select from an ordered range of response options

• strongly disagree (1) through to strongly agree (5)

• categories in scale: quantified and summed → later statistical analysis

why might researchers prefer to study behaviour in a more “natural setting”?

laboratory experiments can produce artificial behaviours

field experiment

studying behaviours in a less controlled environment

disadvantage of field experiment

• loss of control over extraneous variables

• no random assignment of participants to conditions

• non-equivalent groups from the start

quasi-experiment

tries to examine cause-and-effect, even though

lack of:

• full experimental control of IV

• random assignment to conditions

what to be careful in quasi experiments

non-equivalent groups → sometimes differences observed = initial group differences

quasi-experiments are useful when

• useful when it’s impossible/unethical for researchers to assign people to groups

example of quasi experiment being useful

natural experiments: observation of prosocial behaviour before/after 9/11 attack

how to study loss of function/necessity of frontal cortex for planning in humans?

natural experiments

how is experimental/control conditions determined in natural experiments

• natural event

• historical event

natural experiments

• experimental/control conditions determined by natural/historical event

• usually before/after comparisons

• can be between subjects design

examples of natural experiment

• ecological, social, clinical research before/after COVID contingencies

• people suffering from specific strokes vs matched controls

interrupted time series designs

• DV is measured @ several points in time

• interruption = introduction of IV → separates multiple measures of DV

what is interruption in interrupted time series designs

introduction of independent variable separating multiple measures of DV

role of IV in interrupted time series designs

separates multiple measures of DV

advantage of interrupted time series designs

pre/post data → rule out influence of confounding variables to certain extent

example of interrupted time series designs

• traffic accidents before/after introduction of breathalzyer tests in UK

• comparing social development before/after COVID restrictions

3 classifications of studies

• true experimental

• quasi-experimental

• non-experimental

quasi experimental vs. non-experimental

hard to distinguish

biological determinism

• we can understand everything from a biological perspective

• biological perspective is more valid than other explanations

problem of biological determinism

• fails to account for intervening variables

• historically: has resulted in erroneous conclusions

factors that biological determinism fails to account for as intervening variables

• social

• economic

• cultural factors

broca argued that

• brain volume/cranial capacity determines intelligence

• white men cranial capacity > black men

biological determinism gone wrong

• lambroso and crimininology

• broca and cranial capacity

lambroso and criminology

• determined criminals based on:

• shape of their face

• bumps on their skull

true experiment

• random allocation of participants to conditions

• manipulated independent variable - high stress vs. low-stress condition

• dependent variable

quasi-experiment has

• non-equivalent pre-existing groups

• (manipulated) IV

• dependent variable

group difference study

• administer questionnaire, identify:

• measured variable: high-stress vs. low-stress participants

• measured variable: number of errors

control of all variables is best achieved in

a laboratory setting