Cognitive Psychology Exam 3 Review

Morphology

Deals with the structure of words and how they are formed (e.g., prefixes, suffixes).

Syntax

Involves how words are arranged in sentences (sentence structure).

Pragmatics

About using language appropriately in social contexts, considering what the listener knows or expects.

Surface Structure

The literal arrangement of words in a sentence.

Deep Structure

Represents the underlying meaning of a sentence.

Ambiguity

Arises when one deep structure can be expressed in multiple surface structures, or one surface form maps onto multiple deep meanings.

Cognitive-functional Approach

Highlights how speakers use language to guide attention and convey intent, using word order, emphasis, and context.

Context

Primes certain meanings over others, clarifying ambiguous word meanings.

Good-enough Processing Approach

Listeners form simplified interpretations of sentences that are 'good enough' to understand the gist.

Broca's Aphasia

A language disorder resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing difficulty with speech production and syntax.

Right Hemisphere

Helps interpret prosody — the rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech.

Reading vs. Spoken Language Comprehension

Reading is visual, often slower, and controlled by the reader; spoken language is auditory, fleeting, and contextualized.

Eye Movements During Reading

Readers make quick jumps (saccades) and brief pauses (fixations) without conscious awareness.

Direct Route to Word Recognition

Recognize whole words instantly, used by skilled readers.

Indirect Route to Word Recognition

Sound out words phonologically, used more by beginners.

Whole-language Approach

Emphasizes natural reading experiences, exposure to real books, and learning meaning in context.

Comprehension vs. Production

Comprehension is passive and easier to measure, while production is complex and involves planning.

Accuracy of Speech Production

Speech is generally accurate but includes errors often due to time pressure or multitasking.

Role of Gist in Planning Speech

Speakers often plan the general meaning (gist) before choosing specific words.

Narrative

A narrative tells a story with events, characters, and structure (beginning, middle, end).

Deictic gesture

A gesture that points out physical location or object ("this," "that"). Helps ground communication in context.

Simpler syntax in speaking vs. writing

Speech is spontaneous and uses shorter, simpler sentences. Writing allows planning and revising, resulting in more complex syntax.

Writing and cognitive overload

Writing requires attention, planning, grammar, and structure, all simultaneously — placing heavy cognitive demands.

Writing errors vs. slips-of-the-tongue

Writing errors often result from planning and revision problems, while speech errors are more likely due to real-time processing slips.

Expert vs. nonexpert writers

Experts revise at both global and local levels, focusing on clarity and transitions. Nonexperts revise less effectively, often only surface-level issues.

Attitudes and second language learning

Positive attitudes increase motivation and engagement, which boost proficiency.

Bilingual vs. monolingual child challenges

Bilingual children may initially show slower vocabulary development in each language but gain cognitive flexibility long term.

Age of acquisition and grammar proficiency

Earlier exposure typically results in greater fluency, especially in grammar, due to sensitive periods in brain development.

Thinking

Thinking involves mental manipulation of information to form concepts, solve problems, and make decisions.

Understanding in problem-solving

Deep understanding helps break problems into manageable parts, making solutions more achievable.

Working memory's role in story problems

Needed to hold and process information while forming a solution path in real time.

Diagrams in problem-solving

Diagrams make relationships visual, aiding memory and reducing cognitive load. Effective types: tree diagrams, flowcharts, graphs.

Situated-cognition approach

Problem solving is shaped by context and environment. Learning is more effective when it's context-embedded.

Embodied cognition and gestures

Physical gestures can support thought, helping structure information and memory in problem-solving.

Heuristics and problem-solving

Mental shortcuts that save time and effort but may lead to errors if misapplied.

Structural vs. surface features

Structural features are the underlying principles. Focusing on them promotes better transfer of knowledge than superficial traits.

Means-ends heuristic

Identify the end goal, then break the problem into smaller subgoals to reduce the gap step by step.

Experts vs. novices in problem-solving

Experts focus on deep structure, apply domain knowledge, and use more efficient strategies.

Functional fixedness vs. mental set

Functional fixedness: Can't see alternative uses for an object. Mental set: Use old strategies even when new ones would be better.

Stereotype threat and problem solving

Anxiety about confirming stereotypes can impair performance, particularly on tests or tasks involving identity-related pressure.

Insight vs. noninsight problems

Insight problems are solved suddenly, often with an "aha!" moment. Noninsight problems require step-by-step logical strategies.