psyc 3030 lucas final

Problem

An obstacle between a present state and a goal with no obvious solution.

Well-defined problem

Has a clear goal

Ill-defined problem

Doesn't have a clear goal or solution (e.g.

Insight problem

Solved suddenly with a flash of realization; involves restructuring.

Non-insight problem

Solved through gradual

Metcalfe & Wiebe study (insight vs. non-insight)

Showed that insight problems result in sudden solution awareness; non-insight problems show steady progress.

Functional fixedness

Tendency to see objects only in their usual functions (e.g.

Mental set

A habitual way of approaching problems based on past solutions (e.g.

Means-end analysis

Breaking a problem into subgoals to reduce the gap between current and goal state.

Source problem

The known problem used to help solve a new (target) problem.

Target problem

The new problem you're trying to solve using analogy.

Analogical paradox

People rarely use analogies spontaneously but benefit greatly from them when cued.

Three steps in analogical problem solving (Glick & Holyoak)

Noticing

Duncker's radiation problem

Illustrates difficulty in noticing analogies; mapping and applying become easier when reminded.

Surface features

Superficial details of a problem (e.g.

Structural features

Underlying relationships/principles of a problem (e.g.

Lightbulb problem (Holyoak & Koh)

Showed that analogies are more effective when structural features match

Chi et al. expert vs. novice study

Experts sort problems by deep structure; novices by surface features. Expertise helps but can limit flexibility.

Divergent thinking

Generating many creative ideas/solutions (e.g.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing ideas to find one correct solution (e.g.

Smith et al. (1993) example solutions

Viewing examples limits creativity by causing fixation.

Finke's creative cognition

Uses preinventive forms (basic shapes) to inspire novel ideas.

Incubation

Taking a break can lead to sudden insight (shown in Remote Associates Test).

Kermer coin flip study

People overestimate how bad losses will feel—poor emotion prediction.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific examples (probabilistic).

Deductive reasoning

Drawing specific conclusions from general rules (deterministic).

Inductive = probabilistic; deductive = deterministic

Inductive reasoning is likely but uncertain; deductive is logically certain if valid.

Factors affecting inductive strength

Representativeness

Availability heuristic

Events easily recalled seem more probable

Representativeness heuristic

Judging likelihood based on resemblance to a stereotype.

Base rate neglect

Ignoring statistical base rates in decision-making.

Conjunction rule

The probability of two events together cannot exceed the probability of one alone.

Confirmation bias

Seeking evidence that supports our beliefs.

Myside bias

Evaluating arguments in a way that favors our own opinions.

Expected utility theory

Decisions are made to maximize expected gain/utility.

Expected emotions

Predicted feelings about outcomes (often inaccurate).

Incidental emotions

Unrelated feelings that still influence decisions (e.g.

Syllogism

Logical argument with two premises and a conclusion.

Categorical syllogism

Uses categories (e.g.

Conditional syllogism

Uses 'if-then' statements.

Truth vs. Validity

Truth = factual accuracy; Validity = logical consistency.

Belief bias

Accepting invalid arguments because the conclusion matches our beliefs.

Mental model theory (4 steps)

Create model

Four conditional forms

Modus ponens (valid): If P then Q. P. So Q. Modus tollens (valid): If P then Q. Not Q. So not P. Invalid: If P then Q. Not P. So not Q. Invalid: If P then Q. Q. So P.

Wason selection task

Must turn over cards that could falsify the rule

Falsification principle

Test rules by trying to disprove them

Permission schema theory

We understand real-world 'if-permission-then-action' rules better than abstract ones.

Social contract theory

Evolutionary reasoning helps us detect rule violations in social exchanges.