Psych unit 1-7

ALL UNITS

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, but examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener that used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin that explored how mental and behavioral processes function (how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish)

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goal of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

biophysical approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (aka retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning)

SQ3R

study method incorporating steps of survey, question, read, retrieve, review

psychometrics

the study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that helps with job seeking, and with employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

human factors psychology

a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assess, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of participation

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things from -1.00 to +1.00

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables, with the slope suggesting the direction of the relationship between the two variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, or the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment, contrasting with the experimental group as a comparison for evaluating the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone because the recipient assumes it is an active agent

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated and whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured and may change when the independent variable is manipulated

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution, with half of the scores above and half below

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data where most scores fall near the mean

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize and infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

neuron

a nerve cell, the basic building block of nervous system

cell body/soma

part of a neuron that contains nucleus, cell's support center

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward cell body

axon

neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing axons of some neurons, enables faster transmission speed as neural impulses hop between nodes

glial cells

cells in nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, play role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

neural impulse, brief electrical charge that travels down axon

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, brief resting pause that occurs after neuron is fired, action potential cannot occur until last axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none response

neuron's reaction of either firing with full strength or not at all

synapse

junction between axon tip of sending neuron and dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron, tiny gap is called synaptic gap/cleft

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps between neurons, traveling across synapse and binding to receptor sites of receiving neuron

reuptake

neurotransmitter's reabsorption by sending neuron

endorphins

"morphine within", natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

agonist

molecule that increases neurotransmitter's action

antagonist

molecule that inhibits or blocks neurotransmitter's action

nervous system

body's electrochemical communication network, consisting of nerve cells of peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor neurons that connect central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from body tissues and sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord, communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

division of peripheral nervous system that controls body's skeletal muscles