Psychology 1002 - Cognitive Processes

Understand and be able to describe the limitations of behaviourism which led to the Cognitive revolution using specific examples such as language, the need for internal mental representations and concepts like attentional overload and attentional limits.

Behaviourism is a branch of psychology based on the idea that behaviour can be directly observed and studied. However, a large drawback of behaviourism is that it focussed only on observable behaviour (stimulus → response), and would reject anything mental or unobservable

several discoveries led to the cognitive revolution, for example,

complex behaviour without reinforcement - not all actions are driven by reward or punishment

language and internal representations - cannot account for how humans produce novel sentences they’ve never heard before, suggests internal mental representations (concepts, rules, memory) must exist.

Understand Tolman’s perspective on internal mental representations and be able to describe the evidence he found in rat maze navigation which supported this viewpoint.

Tolman’s cognitive maps - showed that animals form internal representations of their environment rather than stimulus-response chains - believed behaviour of rats was stimulus response but rats learned the maze without motivation (food)

Tolman argued that rats navigated mazes using cognitive maps - internal representations of space - not just stimulus-response learning

evidence: rats learned the layout of a maze without a food reward when a food reward was introduced they quickly navigated the maze - showing latent learning

Animals and humans form mental maps and representations - marking the end of behaviourism

Understand the additive factors method which allows cognitive psychologists to draw inferences about internal mental processes (as described by Snodgrass and in the lecture). Be able to apply this method to the memory scanning task.

The additive factors method (Snodgrass) in cognitive psychology measures reaction times (RTs) to infer mental processes that occur between stimulus and response. This part of mental chronometry

simple RT - press a button for any light

choice RT - press different buttons for red vs green light

The difference between the 2 estimates stimulus evaluation time

Understand with the use of the actual outcome of the memory scanning example, the difference between the aims of fields like artificial intelligence, and Cognitive Psychology.

In the memory scanning task, participants memorise a list (set) of items, they are then shown a probe (a letter) and must respond whether it was on the list. - reaction time increases with set size, showing how info is searched for in memory

In cognitive psychology if you are measuring reaction times these can be your hypothesis and predictions about the data turns out given certain truths about how humans work.

Memory scanning task and AI

AI aims to build systems that perform tasks as efficiently as possible “whats the best way to do it”

Cognitive psychology aims to understand how humans do it even if its inefficient

for example, memory scanning task shows how humans perform serial exhaustive search - they check each item one by one and even continue after finding their match

AI would stop immediately but humans don’t (self-terminating)

Understand the difference between a parallel and serial search in memory and the manner in which this is inferred from reaction time data plotted against set size.

Serial search processes memory items one by one, increasing reaction time with each item

While parallel search processes all items simultaneously, resulting in a constant reaction time regardless of set size

Understand and be able to give examples as to why Cognitive Psychologists do not rely on introspection as a methodology and seek objective measures. Examples may include reasoning errors such as the certainty and pseudo-certainty effects demonstrated in the lecture

Mental processes occur too quickly and unconsciously to be accurately described (train of thought)

Subjective and unreliable - people are often wrong about how they think

Using a system to study a system - instead they use objective measures like reaction times and error rates to infer how the mind works

Examples of reasoning errors

certainty effect - people are risk averse when factoring sure gains

pseudo certainty effect (framing effect)

people react differently depending on how choices are framed as gains or losses

losses feel larger than gains, training alters decision making

if something is 40$ and 20$ off you are more likely to get it, if something is 1040$ and 20$ off you are unlikely to get it

Understand and be able to give examples of situations where focused visual or auditory attention leads to limited processing of other stimuli.

Focussed attention - narrow concentration on one stimulus → leads to ignoring everything else this is because when your brain has limited processing resources so filters out what is not currently being focussed on

Be able to define, distinguish and give examples of focused attention, divided attention, inattentional blindness, and change blindness.

Diffused attention - attention is spread across multiple stimuli at once

Attentional slippage - multitasking, struggling to focus attention

Inattentional blindness - you don’t process things you are not paying attention to.

Change blindness - failure to notice obvious changes in a visual scene due to a lack of attention

Understand and be able to describe the difference between an early, late or flexible locus of selection.

early locus of selection - the things you aren’t paying attention to, we don’t know what they are. Anything you haven’t selected is processed to a very limited extent

Late locus of selection - all incoming stimuli are processed for meaning before a selection is made for what enters conscious awareness

Flexible locus of selection - the idea that attention can be selected at different stages of processing—either early, at a perceptual level, or late, at a more cognitive level—depending on the task's difficulty

Be able to both give and interpret examples which demonstrate an early, late or flexible locus of selection.

Early locus of selection -

Treisman (1960) - participant wears a headset with two different audio clips playing in either, participants are ask to only focus on one ear and repeat what is being said to them to the experimentor. When asked what was being played in the ear they were told not to focus on, participants could not recall anything, evidence for early selection

Late locus of selection -

Cocktail party phenomenon - you’re at a busy party and then you hear your name - they found 35% of the time participants could recognise when their name was said in the unattended ear

Flexible locus of selection - locus is flexible and depends on the situation, how focussed/attentive you are changes what you pay attention to and what locus you end at

Be able to define and distinguish between endogenous and exogenous attention as it relates to guided searched and attentional capture.

Exogenous/involuntary/stimulus driven - e.g. loud noise, flashing lights, something that draws your attention

looking for red target but suddenly a blue target comes on screen

Endogenous/voluntary/controlled - e.g. when you’re putting effort into looking for something

looking for a blue target which is easy as all other objects are blue

Understand the role of attention according to Treisman’s FIT (feature integration theory) and the visual search evidence (for both feature and conjunction targets) which supports it.

Treisman’s (1986) Feature Integration Theory proposes that we process features independently in a preattentive manner (doing this very quickly and in parallel), and the role of attention (the ‘attention spotlight) was to bind these features together into objects (a slow and serial process).

Be able to both list the features of (capacity, duration, format) and describe the evidence supporting the features of both kinds of sensory memory (iconic and echoic).

Sensory memory - sensory buffer, info held just long enough for our brain to do something with them (process them)

Iconic memory

Visual sensory buffer

capacity - unlimited

duration - approximately 0.25 to 1 second

format - raw, high resolution

Evidence - writing down letters when flashed them, how many letters can people recall when asked to recall as many as they can ~4-5, then its gone

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory buffer

Capacity - not as much info as iconic memory

Duration - 8-10 seconds

evidence -

Be able to both list the features of and describe the evidence supporting the features of short-term memory (capacity, duration, format)

Capacity - limited 7+-2

Rate of forgetting - decays in 20 seconds if not rehearsed

Be able to describe and define the primacy and recency effects and explain with evidence why they are thought to have different origins.

the primacy effect is attributed to items being transferred from short-term to long-term memory through rehearsal, and the recency effect is due to the last items still being present in active short-term memory. 

Be able to describe the particular kind of amnesia Clive Wearing suffers from and how it affects his existence.

Clive Wearing has the inability to turn short term memory into long term memory + has no explicit recall of long term memories - his entire existence is his short term memory. Every time he fails to rehearse whats going on he will forget. He can speak and remember old things, can’t argue with him logically.

Understand and be able to describe the more modern (active) representation of short-term memory known as working memory, and be able to distinguish between its three components.

Working memory model is made up of 3 components

The visuospatial sketch pad

This is the "inner eye" that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information.

It allows you to visualise things, such as a mental map to a friend's house.

The central executive

"control centre" for the entire system.

It directs attention, suppresses irrelevant information, and coordinates the other slave systems.

It is also responsible for retrieving information from long-term memory

The phonological loop

Also known as the "inner voice," this is responsible for processing verbal and auditory information, such as repeating a phone number to remember it.

It consists of two parts: the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory control process (inner voice).

Be able to describe three pieces of evidence supporting the existence and nature of the phonological loop within working memory.

Phonological loop - has a limited capacity

if you get asked to remember a sentence and then asked how many words are in it, you use your fingers because your phonological loop is occupied

Speed at which you speak = how much you can hold in you phonological loop

Be able to define, distinguish between and give examples of semantic memory and episodic memory

Semantic memory - memory for what things mean

Episodic memory - a memory of something that happened at a particular time

Be able to describe Collins and Loftus’s hierarchical network model of memory, the assumptions made, the manner in which meaning is represented within it (superset and property relationships), and the sentence verification method used to test its validity

Hierarchical network models (collins and Quillian (1969), Collins and Loftus (1972))

logical hierarchical structure with interconnected ‘nodes’

No redundancies

Properties stored at the highest level of networks

Spreading activation to other nodes

Evaluation of Hierarchical model - sentence verification task - measure the time to verify sentences

if two concepts are related spreading activation from two concepts will ‘intersect’, time to verify sentence is based on how closely the nodes are connected - however was only found to work on sentences about canaries

e.g. a dog is a mammal took longer than a dog is an animal

Understand how meaning in stored within a propositional network, and implications for memory of specific sentence structure

propositional network models 0 meaning is encoded not as whole sentences but as propositions - abstract units of meaning

each proposition links concepts via relationships - sentence structure doesn’t affect meaning storage

Understand and be able explain parallel distributed processing (PDP) models of memory: how memories are stored in them, how they work, and what they are good at and bad at

parallel distributed processing models (PDP) - post-neuroscience and understands that we have neurons, involves a set of interconnected processing nodes (~neurones) that communicate by sending activation or inhibition. however, network learn atypical things more slowly

PDP models simulate memory as a network of interconnected processing units (like neurons) - information is represented in ptterns of activation across many nodes, not single locations

How they work - learning occurs by adjusting connection strengths between nodes - related concepts share overlapping activation patterns - allows generalisation: learning ‘canary’ helps recognise ‘robin’

this helps explain category learning, generalisation, and stereotyping - explains how we generalise and infer new relationships

Cannot easily model abstract thinking, hard to recall conscious recall of specific events

Understand and be able to describe the famous “War of the Ghosts” experiment by Bartlett and its findings which led to the proposition of schemas

Bartlett (1932) - white students were given a native-american story, the students did not have the schemas in place to many of the themes or acts in

Changes - hunting seals to fishing, canoe tended to become boat

We use schemas because we are cognitive misers, variation based on culture and makes memory encoding more efficient.

Be able to define, describe and give examples of schema, how schema are used to benefit memory economy, but also result in distortions, omissions, false inclusions and other kinds of errors.

Schema - generalised mental representations, or concepts, describing a class of objects, people, scenes, or events

Be able to define, distinguish, identify and give examples of different kinds of schema: person schema (stereotypes) and event schema (scripts).

Schema examples -

stereotypes (person schemas) - generalisations about traits of people/groups

event schemas - also known as scripts, ordered sequences of expected behaviours for events

Role schemas - expectations for social roles

CBD may change how an individual organises their schemas

Be able to describe, identify and apply an understanding of the misapplication of a script.

Scripts are structured sequences of expected actions in a familiar settings

provide behavioural guidance - reduce cognitive load

misapplication - applying an inappropriate script in a different context → error

Have an understanding of how priming works in reference to spreading activation on an associational network.

priming refers to the unconscious influence one stimulus has on the response to another. When a concept is encountered, activation spreads through related nodes in the semantic network so that related ideas become more accessible

e.g. participants primed with ‘money, cash, pay’ interpret “bank” as financial institution, whereas, those primed with ‘river, flow, boat’ interpret bank as riverbank

this demonstrates activation in semantic memories, when a concept is activated, related concepts become more easily retrieved. This process occurs without conscious awareness

Be able to define and give examples of procedural memory, and describe at least three possible reasons why it is hard to verbalise.

memory for how to do things - skills, habits, motor activities

this is a form of non-declarative memory

why it is hard to verbalise

Automaticity - once learned, these actions run automatically (e.g. you can’t explain how to balance on a bike)

Gradual learning - developed over practice, not one trial learning

Unconscious access - processes occur below conscious awareness

Be able to define and distinguish between an explicit memory test and an implicit memory test and give examples of each.

Explicit memory - conscious recollection of information

recall - list all the words you studied

recognition - have you seen this word before?

awareness - participants know they are remembering

hippocampus + medial temporal lobes

Implicit memory - unconscious memories from past experiences

mirror tracing, priming tasks, word stem completion

participants unaware memory is being tested

basal ganglia, cerebellum, sensory cortices

Be able to describe how the stem completion form of an implicit memory task is used to establish implicit memory.

Stem completion form is an implicit memory task - participants study a list of words (table, flower, car, etc.) later they are asked to complete stems like

Ta__

Ca__

Fl__

They often fill the stems with the studied words even when told to use the first word that comes to mind

Implicit memory - prior experience influences performance without conscious recall

Be able to describe the distinct features of implicit memory when compared to explicit memory (dissociations) in regard to duration, modality/format change, and impact of level of processing.

Explicit memories decline over time while implicit memories persist longer

Explicit memories are disrupted by change (visual/auditory) while implicit memories are often unaffected.

Levels of processing - explicit memories - deep encoding improves memory, implicit memories - has little or no effect

amnesia - explicit - impaired, implicit - often intact - amnesia patients are often found to not be able to recall words (explicit) but will show priming (implicit)

Understand and be able to describe the DRM (Deese, Roediger & McDermott) false memory paradigm in relation to words presented and words not presented, and the usual findings.

Participants study a list of semantically related words (e.g. snooze, bed, rest, awake, dream) - when tested they often recall or recognise a word that was never presented (e.g. sleep)

The proposed explanation for this happening is that related concepts are activated via spreading activation in semantic memory - critical lure - sleep - feels familiar because related words triggered this network - demonstrates how false memories form from normal associative processes

Be able to describe the nature of Kim Peek’s unique memory ability in conjunction with his unique conceptual memory flaw, and understand in relation to the DRM evidence what may have been occurring in his case.

Kim Peek had extraordinary factual (semantic) memory, e.g. being able to recall entire books verbatim. However, he lacked contextual understanding - could not generalise from flexible schemas

extreme storage but no organisation - contrasting normal semantic memory which relies on networks

Like DRM, his brain has uncontrolled activation of related material but without the conceptual linking or inhibition

Be able to define and give examples of flashbulb memories; and be able to explain why psychologists use such events to study emotional memory.

Vivid, detailed recollections of where you were and what you were doing during emotionally charged, surprising events. e.g. 9/11 attacks

Consider the evidence regarding flashbulb memories and be able to explain and argue about differences and similarities with ordinary memories and their significance.

Brown and Kulik - such events trigger a special biological mechanism - an emotional ‘flash’ that imprints memory permanently

nelsser - however, while confidence in these memories remains high, the accuracy declines over time, they fide like normal memories though people believe they are acurate

Understand the key findings of Conway’s et al’s flashbulb memory study and the best and worst remembered kinds of memory.

Conway et al. examined people’s memories about Thatcher’s resignation, researchers found that UK participants (those who were directly affected) retained more detail than non-UK participants - suggests personal relevance and rehearsal maintain flashbulb memories not a special memory system

Understand the nature of the reminiscence bump and the evidence which established it as a phenomenon

Adults (especially after 40) - recall more memories from ages 10-30 than from other periods - a spike in autobiographical memory

researchers think this is because - many firsts during this period , memories are encoded during periods of high emotion

Understand the impact of aging on memory and how attitudes and effort distort the impact further. Be able to illustrate this with reference to recognition and recall data, schema concerning the elderly across cultures, and the impact of labelling a memory test as a “test” (Rahal et al.)

Recognition and recall tasks

recognition - shown items which some you’ve seen before and some you haven’t and you have to indicate whether or not you’ve seen the item before

retrieval cue - stimulus itself

recall - block sheet of paper - you have to generate retrieval

recall decreases with age, recognition largely stays the same

As we age we lose myelin - which means we lose speed - neural connections are slower

The idea that people are dumber when they are older is a stereotype and an attitude

Rahal et al - gave 2 groups of students the same test only the title page was different

1/2 were told they were testing memory ability

1/2 were told they were testing their ability to learn trivia

age differences were only found when participants were told that the test was measuring memory ability - this gives insight into the role of attitude on memory

MCE (multiple choice exams) - hard because you recognise a lot of the answers - recognition lights up at distractors

Be able to define and explain transfer appropriate processing, and have a good understanding of Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) swimming pool study on context, and the differences they found between the recall and recognition data.

Researchers found that when participants would study under water they would recall more words when under water showing context-dependent memory showing that divers recalled better when conditions of the test matched those during learning.

Be able to define and distinguish between proactive and retroactive interference.

Proactive interference is when old information interferes with your ability to recall new information.

Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with your ability to recall old information

Have an understanding of “levels of processing”, its impact on memory, and the importance of carefully defining depth to avoid a circular logic.

Deep processing

asking questions/ elaboration of material

structuring material semantically

self referent encoding - deep encoding

reading the same information from different sources, different authors

Be able to describe Bransford and Johnston’s (1972) balloon study, its method and key findings, and what these suggest about when it is important to give a structure for encoding.

showed that comprehension and recall of an ambiguous passage improved dramatically when participants were given a title that provided a relevant context before reading it, this was compared with groups given no context, partial context or context provided after the passage. This study suggests that context or structure is incredibly important in encoding information as it allows the brain to connect new content with existing schemas, making it more meaningful and memorable as well as gaps in knowledge being able to be filled by relying on past context.

Be able to describe and apply the findings of Dunlosky et al. (2013) on effective study techniques in regard to: rereading, practice testing, and distributed practice.

Dunlosky et al. (2013) found that practice testing and distributed practice are highly effective study techniques, while rereading is one of the least effective methods. Applying these findings means using regular self-quizzing to retrieve information from memory (practice testing) and spacing out study sessions over time instead of cramming (distributed practice). Avoid rereading, as it provides a false sense of mastery without actually improving long-term retention.

Have an understanding of Roediger and Karpicke’s (2006) test enhanced learning study, and be able to describe the key findings and their implications in regard to study and memorisation.

Roediger and Karpicke's (2006) study found that taking practice tests is a more effective strategy for long-term memorization than restudying, even when restudying involves more time.

• Testing enhances long-term retention: Participants who took practice tests retained the information better over a one-week delay compared to those who spent the same amount of time restudying the material.

• Initial advantage for studying: On a final test given immediately after the learning phase, the "study" group performed better, as testing without feedback didn't initially seem as beneficial. This is likely because restudying involves re-exposure to the full material, while testing only retrieves what can be remembered at that moment.

• Testing is superior for durable learning: The advantage for the "testing" group became pronounced after a time delay, showing that retrieval practice is superior for long-term memory consolidation.

• Active recall over passive review: The findings suggest that testing is not just a way to assess knowledge but a powerful tool for improving it. Students should use active recall, such as self-testing or practice questions, rather than just rereading notes.