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guyot
eroded sea mount on top
Average thickness of continental crust
40 km
How many years ago was the big bang?
13.7 Billion years
How many years ago was the sun and earth formed?
4.5 billion years
where did water come from?
80% from asteroids , some from the earth itself. Was around 4.4 bya
Continental Crust contents
Granite, Al, Si, O
Oceanic crust contents
Basalt, Mg, Fe
Average crust thickness of oceanic crust
10 km
who found the line between the mantle and crust?
Mohorovicic
physical description of the lithosphere
Brittle, solid, moves around (tectonics/plates), floating on a semi liquid
physical description of the athenosphere
semi liquid
physical description of the mesosphere
“more solid”
physical description of the outer core
very dense liquid, about 5500 degrees Celsius
physical description of the inner core
solid as a rock, about 6000 degrees Celsius (almost equal to sun’s surface)
bathymetric
measure of depth
continental margin
continental shelf to end of continental rise
continental shelf
Average width of 60 km, depth of 130 m (photic zone), 1/2 a degree slope
Continental slope
4 degree slope, canyons made sediment collapses, 2-3 km deep
continental rise
Foot of continental slope? sediment accumulates at foot of slope, 1 degree slop slightly higher, plane broken up by canyons
deep-ocean basin
not a lot of sediment, very flat (less than 0.5 degrees), varying volcanic topography, 3-5 km deep (average is 4 km)
sea mounts
mountains > 1 km?, don’t reach surface, may be active volcanoes or extinct
trench
steep, deepest part of the ocean, narrow, collision of ocean crust and continental crust
Sigsbee deep
trench in Gulf of Mexico
mid-ocean ridges
one long mountain range, submarine ridge, 60,000 km, elevated, very hot, builds lithospheric plate
when was the first known illustrations of continental drift
1858- Antonia Snider- Pellegrini
What evidence do we have of continental drift
distribution of fossils- see how the continents were connected
glacier scour - glaciation
geological formations
when did we measure longitude
late 1800s
pangea
super continent, broke 250-300 mya, different rate/different direction. thickness and age of marine sediment shows older sediment closer to continents
how old is the oldest marine sediment
200 mya
how old is oldest continental rock crust thing
3.5 byo
convection cell
seafloor spreading (Hess)
Who named the theory of seafloor spreading
Hess, Vine/Matthews 1963
Magnotometer
bands of reversed magnetism, paleomagnetism
Theory of plate tectonics
transform faults (Wilson 1965, Sykes 1967) Activity on transform faults are active only between mid-ocean ridge centers
Passive margin
side of continents closest to mid-ocean range
Active margin
side of continent closest to convergent plate
Wilson cycle
divergence to convergence. Based on heat in the mantle
what is the simplified process of the making of the sun
interstellar gas-- sun--- ignition
What is the simplified process of the making of the planets
dust ring-- gravity-- protoplanets-- planets
how are elements sorted in molten earth
by weight
what are continents mostly made of
granite
what do collision + pressure+ radiation equal
heat
sediment
varying size, both mineral and organic, that is being or has been moved from origin by wind, water, gravity or ice
clasts and clastic rocks
formed from pre-existing rocks
rock cycle
erosion, deposition, transport
chemical weathering
the composition of minerals in sediment changes as it moves from source. some minerals are more stable than others. sediments composition shows source material. Happens when surface is exposed to water
physical weathering
breaking down to different sizes
composition term
clay mineral
gravel size
2.0mm
sand size
o.o625mm- 2.0mm
silt size
0.004- 0.0625mm
clay size
< 0.004 mm
how is texture changed
reduced sizes, increased roundness, generally increases sorting
what does sediment texture provide info on
what sort of mechanical processes have happened
depositional environments
mountains, glaciers, lakes, lagoons, reef, dunes, deep water planes
high energy
fast-moving, turbulent water maintains smaller grains in suspension so they can’t be deposited. Course deposit= sand, gravel
low energy
slow-moving water does not transport coarse sediments. fine-grained deposit= mud
hydraulic sorting
larger gravel clasts stop moving in response to decreasing flow energy
why do clay particles stick together
because of charges
Hjulstrom diagram
given particle size, fluid velocity (erosion, transport, deposition). grain size: direct, linear relationship size and velocity, some particles do not deposit in moving water. mud has cohesion
sedimentation on continental shelf
different from deep sea (shallow water, source is land), shelf (platform nearly flat (1 degree), bredth)
relic sediment
deposited under different conditions from those present today, covers 60% of continental shelf globally, stratigraphy
0-1,000 yrs record
wind, waves and tides, storms move largest volumes
1,000-1,00,000 yrs record
Pleistocene (glaciation, low SL), rivers extended over shelf, coral reefs stranded (died)
1,000,000- 100,000,000 yrs record
plate tectonics
sedimentation in deep ocean
Source of terrigenous sediment far away, does not transmit energy, biogenous ooze and pelagic red clay settle down
terrigenous
runoff, Eolian (wind born)
biogenous
calcereous, siliceous
hydrogenous
precipitate
cosmogenous
meteroites and stuff
pelagic clay
fine grained mud, clay, silt settles slowly from suspension, brown bc Fe oxidized, quarts, feldspar, clay
bulk emplacement
sediment slumps, large mass of loose sediment on unstable slope is redistributed
turbidity current
gravity driven slurries of water/sediment, push aside clear water, build downslope- scouring more sediment as move, stop settle when slope flattens. graded bedding, fining upward, accumulate sequentially, deep-sea fans
deep sea canyons
move lots of sediment in low SL
carbonate compensation depth (CCD)
depth below which CaCO3 shells dissolve, depends on CaCO3 supply, pH, temp, pressure. below CCD only SiO2 ooze deposits
hydrogenous sediment
precipitates from seawater, phosphorite- organic material, metal sulfides, manganese nodules
deltas
right on edge of coast is where the sediment is mostly deposited; river- dominated, wave-dominated, tide-dominated
what does sphericity depend on?
composition
What are the parts of a beach?
Toe, swash zone, high tide line, berm crest, berm
what does sediment transport depend on
depends on competence of flow (speed/velocity/energy of flow)
bedload
hits bottom, creep (rolling down), saltation (picked and dropped and repeat)
orthogonal
90 degrees from wave crest
how does the shape of the land affect waves
can change the angles
transport
not completely parallel, net transport along shore, water moves along the shore (longshore/littoral current)
sediment transport
swash and backwash
wave setup
amount of water that is carried to shore, and where it hits the land. pressure gradient creates long shore current (not wind related), rip current/tide
Ilmenite
TiSiO
Magnetite
FeSiO
Tourmaline
green sediment
Sediment budgeting
Is there net erosion? Is there net deposition?
Inputs - outputs can =
steady state
accretion (more in than out)
Erosion (more out than in)
What are the three ways that Barrier Islands can form?
Submergence of a coastal sand ridge --relic beach ridge
Segmentation of a sand spit --longshore drift/current
emergence of a longshore bar -- made by a man at GCRL
what is the delta lobe cycle
delta--abandonment--submergence--submergence--reoccupation
what are the habitats of barrier islands (6) due to zonation
beach
dune
grassland
shrub thicket
maritime forest
marsh