Conceptual Models

Rational Policy Model

Nations act as unitary, rational actors that choose actions to maximize strategic goals.This model assumes that decision-makers have complete information and can assess the consequences of their choices accurately.

Organizational Process Model

Government actions emerge from standard operating procedures of semi‑independent organizations. This model emphasizes that decisions are not made by a single actor but rather through a series of bureaucratic processes that prioritize routine and established practices.

Bureaucratic Politics Model

Outcomes result from bargaining among actors with differing preferences and power. This model highlights that decisions are influenced by the political dynamics, competing interests, and conflicts within the government, rather than by a singular rational choice.

Example for Rational

During the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the U.S. government’s decision to impose a naval blockade (quarantine) on Cuba can be explained as a rational attempt to force the Soviet Union to remove its missiles without triggering nuclear war.

Example for Organizational

During the Cuban Missile Crisis, the U.S. Air Force continued certain surveillance flights over Cuba out of routine, even though those flights risked provoking the Soviets—showing how organizational habits can influence policy.

Example for Bureaucratic

in the Cuban Missile Crisis, debates among President Kennedy’s advisors (military leaders wanted airstrikes, diplomats preferred negotiation) led to a compromise—the naval blockade. The final decision reflected internal bargaining, not just rational calculation.