Chapter 11 - Human Development

germinal stage

prenatal stage between conception - 2 weeks

* conception, implantation, formation of placenta

embryonic stage

prenatal stage between 2 weeks - 2 months

* formation of vital organs and systems

fetal stage

prenatal stage between 2 months - birth

* bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply
* age of viability

during pregnancy, what is severe malnutrition linked to? (2)

* birth complications
* neurological problems

what is moderate malnutrition during pregnancy linked to?

psychopathy in adolescence and adulthood

what is maternal drug use linked to in adulthood? (3)

* depression
* suicide
* criminal behaviour

cephalocaudal trend

head to foot

* babies gain control of the top of their body first

proximodistal trend

centre-outward

* babies motor control begins in the centre of body, then moves outward

maturation

gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint

temperament

an individual’s characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity

longitudinal designs

track one group over time to assess them

cross-sectional designs

comparing groups at one point in time

what are the 3 basic temperamental styles?

* easy
* slow to warm up
* difficult

what temperamental style describes a baby who is happy, sleeps regularly, and eats well?

easy

what temperamental style describes a baby who is less cheery, sleeps and eats well sometimes, and takes time to adjust to change?

slow to warm up

what temperamental style describes a baby who is irritable, has emotional reactivity to change, and is erratic with sleeping and eating?

difficult

what did thomas, chess, and birch study?

the 3 basic temperamental styles of babies

what temperamental style is most likely to have mood problems?

difficult

what did kagan and snidman study?

inhibited vs. uninhibited temperament

does a baby who is shy, wary and timid have an inhibited or an uninhibited temperament?

inhibited

does a baby who has less restraint and less fear have an inhibited or an uninhibited temperament?

uninhibited

what can alter a child’s temperament?

parental reactions

attachment

close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers

what did harlow study?

MONKEYS!!!! and attachment

what was the conclusion to harlow’s experiments?

attachment to mothers is from comfort, not nursing

what did john bowlby add onto harlow’s research? (2)

* said attachment wasn’t learned, rather it is biological.
* said babies do cute things so caregivers want to keep them safe.

what did ainsworth study?

separation anxiety, tested attachment in conditions where the mother left the room

what are the four attachment styles that ainsworth studied?

* secure
* anxious-ambivalent
* avoidant
* disorganized / disoriented

what attachment style does a baby have who is fine when the mom leaves the room?

secure

what attachment style does a baby have who is anxious in the presence of a stranger even when mom is there, cries when mom leaves, and continues crying when she returns?

anxious-abivalent

what attachment style does a baby have who doesn’t care about the stranger, doesn’t pay attention to mom or care when she leaves?

avoidant

what attachment style does a baby have who appears confused about how they should be interacting with their mother?

disorganized / disoriented

what attachment style is more likely when parents are a predictable, stable influence in a child’s life?

secure

what are the 3 components of stage theories?

* progress through stages **in** **order**
* progress through stages related to **age**
* major **discontinuities** **in** **development**

what did erik erikson study?

**psychosocial crises** determining **balance** between opposing polarities in **personality**

* 8 stages of life

what is stage 1 of erickson’s stage theory?

trust vs. mistrust

* 1st year of life


* rely on adults for basic needs

what is stage 2 of erickson’s stage theory?

autonomy vs. shame / doubt

* 2 - 3 years old


* child begins to take some personal responsibility

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what is stage 3 of erickson’s stage theory?

initiative vs. guilt

* 4 - 6 years old


* children experiment and take initiative

what is stage 4 of erickson’s stage theory?

industry vs. inferiority

* 6 - puberty
* learning to function socially, beyond family

what is stage 5 of erickson’s stage theory?

identity vs. confusion

* adolescence
* forming a sense of identity

what is stage 6 of erickson’s stage theory?

intimacy vs. isolation

* early adulthood
* to develop the capacity to share intimacy with others

what is stage 7 of erickson’s stage theory?

generativity vs. self-absorption

* middle adulthood
* genuine concern for the welfare of future generations

what is stage 8 of erickson’s stage theory?

integrity vs. despair

* late adulthood
* avoid dwelling on past mistakes and imminent death, instead finds meaning and satisfaction in life

what did jean piaget study?

cognitive development

* argued that the **interation with the environment** and **maturation** gradually alter the way that children think

assimilation

interpreting new experiences using existing mental structures

accommodation

changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences

what are the 4 stages of cognitive development (piaget)?

* sensorimotor (birth - 2 years)
* preoperational (2 - 7 years)
* concrete operational (7 - 11 years)
* formal operational (teen years - early 20s)

what is the key task in the sensorimotor period?

object permanence

* the recognition that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible

what is the key task in the preoperational period?

conservation

* recognizing that the amount of a substance does not change just because the appearance is changed

what do children master in the concrete operational period? (4)

* reversibility
* decentration
* declining egocentrism
* gradual mastery of conservation

what is the key task in the formal operational period?

able to apply operations to **abstract** concepts

* begin thinking in “degrees” (ex. how good / bad, on a scale)
* systematic problem solving

what are the key tasks to achieve conservation, according to piaget? (4)

* centration
* egocentrism
* reversibility
* animism

centration

tendancy for children to focus on one aspect of the problem and ignore the rest (ex. height of beaker in piaget’s conservation task)

egocentrism

only cognitively capable of taking their own perspective on issues

reversibility

unable to mentally undo something

animism

tendency to put human qualities into everything that they see

(ex. fire is angry, stuffed animal is sad)

what are weaknesses to piaget’s theory? (3)

* underestimates children’s cognitive development
* does not address individual differences
* does not address cultural variations

what type of theory is piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

stage theory

what type of theory is vygotsky theory of cognitive development?

socio-cultural theory

what did vygotsky study? (3)

* cognitive development and social interactions
* culture
* language acquisition

what were vygotsky’s 2 main theoretical concepts?

* **the zone of proximal development** (the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance)
* **scaffolding** (a student's ability to learn information through the help of a more informed individual)

critical period

limited time span when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences

sensitive period

optimal period for acquisition (developing a skill), but can still learn a new skill beyond this period

what did kohlberg study?

the development of moral reasoning

what are the 3 levels of moral reasoning in kohlberg’s theory?

* preconventional
* conventional
* postconventional

what is the pre-conventional level in kohlberg’s theory?

external authority

* stage 1: punishment orientation
* stage 2: naive reward orientation

what is the conventional level in kohlberg’s theory?

rules maintain social order

* stage 3: good boy / good girl orientation
* stage 4: authority orientation

what is the post-conventional level in kohlberg’s theory?

personal code of ethics

* stage 5: social contract orientation
* stage 6: individual principles and conscience orientation

white matter

communication + linking different parts of the brain

* starts to slow down in adolescence

grey matter

thinking part of brain

* starts to slow down in adolesence
* synaptic pruning: areas of the brain you use in childhood are prioritized, other areas are not

what do MRI studies show about the teen brain?

the teen brain is subject to considerable change (brain remains relatively plastic up to age 25)

pre-frontal cortex

executive control center

what did james marcia study?

identity statuses

what are the 4 identity statuses?

* foreclosure
* moratorium
* identity diffusion
* identity achievement

foreclosure

premature commitment

* based on what other people want for us (parents, caregivers)

moratorium

delaying commitment

* engaging in experimentation with different roles

identity diffusion

lack of direction

* apathy, avoiding the question of what they are going to do

identity achievement

sense of self

* after consideration, arriving at sense of self and having a sense of direction

emerging adulthood

18 - 25

* delays in marriage and parenthood
* subjective feeling of being “in between”
* self-focused

what is the “U” trend?

maritial satisfaction are highest at the beginning and end of the family cycle

boomerang children

involves returing to live in parents home after moving out

* conflict occurs when new roles have not been negotiated

fluid intelligence

basic information-processing skills

* declines with age

crystallized intelligence

application of accumulated knowledge

* remains stable with age

episodic memory

personal experiences

working memory

short term store

procedural memory

actions, skills, operations

semantic memory

general knowledge