APES U4

Core

solid iron surrounded by molten magma

Mantle

majority of the inside of the earth, melted rock, magma

Crust

thinnest layer of the earth, solid rock, underlays the continents and ocean floor

asthenosphere

upper layer of the mantle which is still molten magma, causing the movement of the tectonic plates
magma moves in convection cells

lithosphere

crust and most solid part of the mantle

divergent

2 plates moving away from each other
ex: seafloor spreading, midatlantic ridge, rift valley in Eastern Africa, volcanos and earthquakes in iceland

convergant

plates colliding
ex: folded non volcanic mountains (Appalachien and Himalayas), volcanic island arcs (Alaska's Aleutian and Japan), volcanic mountains (Cascadian in Pacific NW, Andes in Chile), earthquakes and volcanos

transform

plates slide past each other at the same level, can cause earthquakes from abrupt movement of a plate caused by a release of energy.
ex: San Andreas Fault

Hot Spot

area in the middle of a plate with volcanic activity
ex: Hawaii

Ring of fire

name for the loose ring between Western Americas and Eastern Asia with lots of volcanic activity

Earthquakes

Occur at faults: splits in plates or where two plates meet
Primary effects: shaking, permanent vertical or horizontal displacement
Secondary effects: rockslides, urban fires, flooding by tsunami or land sinking
use triangulation to find the epicenter

Richter Scale

used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake
logarithmic scale (each number up is 10X more)

P waves

seismic waves produces by earthquakes
P waves are compression waves which travel faster than S waves

S waves

seismic waves produces by earthquakes
lateral motion, more destructive than P waves

Epicenter calculation

Use the lag time between P and S waves to determine the earthquakes epicenter (on the surface of the earth) and by association, the focus (directly below the epicenter inside the earth)
seismographs log the S and P waves

Half life equation

A (final amount) = A (initial) x 2^(-t/h)
t=time
h=half life

O horizon

all humus (partially decomposed organic material like leaves, animal feces, twigs, holds moisture and prevents erosion
O stands for organic material

A horizon

Topsoil, Includes some humus (decomposed organic material) and inorganic nutrients (ex.-NO3-)

B horizon

Subsoil, some leeching of nutrients, less humus

C horizon

Parent material, contains most of soil's inorganic matter
where leached mineral accumulate

R horizon

Bedrock, composed of large rocks which form the soil layers above

leaching

water dissolves soil parts (especially nutrients) and carries them downward through the layer of soil where plants can't access them

Soil texture

relative amounts of silt, clay, and sand
use a soil triangle to determine texture
loams (equal parts silt, clay, and sand) are best for growing crops

aeration

how much air space there is the soil

soil erosion

lowers fertility and overloads nearby bodies of water with sediment
soil, especially topsoil and litter, moved by wind and water
caused by farming (tilling), logging, construction, overgrazing, even walking off of a path

1985 Food Security Act

US government offered subsidies to farmers who owned highly erodible land to put that land out of production and replant it with soil saving plants for 10-15 years

Available freshwater

less than 1% of the earth's water, and even some of that in contained as water vapor

Watershed

area of land that drains into a body of water
ex: Chesapeake bay watershed

confined aquifer

permeable water table in which water can easily infiltrate and recharge groundwater

unconfined aquifer

bound above and below by less permeable materials such as clay and bedrock where the water is confined and under pressure
ex: Ogallala

water table

upper level of an underground water source

Troposphere

Innermost layer, where weather occurs, water cycle, climate
78% Nitrogen, 21% O2, rest are other trace gasses

Stratosphere

Second innermost layer, O3 (ozone) protects Earth from UV light, much less water than troposphere, doesn't mix
Stratosphere heats up as altitude increases because O3 is a greenhouse has

Mesosphere

less and less gas particles as altitude increases

Thermosphere

trapped light causes the aurora borealis, where satellights orbit

Exosphere

Space

weather

short term properties of the troposphere
temp, pressure, humidity, precipitation, could cover, etc.

climate

long term weather data trends and atmospheric conditions collected over a minimum period of 30 years
average temp and precipitation determine climate
latitude and elevation as well
temp and precipitation determined by air circulation patterns

Factors that affect global air circulation

Earth's axis tilt causing uneven heating of the surface
convection cells propelled by properties of air, water, and land
rotation of the earth on its axis causing the Coriolis Effect

Earth's axis tilt

23.5 degrees - caused seasons
Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the sun = summer
At the same time, Southern Hemisphere tilts away = winter
and so on

Convection cells

Heat and moisture are distributed over the earth's surface by vertical currents forming six giant convection cells on each side of the sphere at different latitudes
1. warm, moist air rises and precipitates
2. excess heat is radiated into spaces
3. cool, dry air condenses and falls back to the earth
4. heats and picks up moisture, rises again

Wet 0

at the equator, where the convection cells bring up warm wet air and precipitates down onto the earth often, cool dry air falls to the earth in higher latitudes
tropical rainforest biome as a result

Dry 30s

cool dry air falls to the earth here in the convection cell and creates the earth's deserts

Wet 60s

Moderate amount of heat energy causes moderate precipitation at heat rises, creating the temperate deciduous forests and taigas

dry 90s

The cool dry air at the end of the 60s convection cell creates the tundras at the 90s which are essentially just cold deserts

Coriolis effect

due to the earth's rotation on its axis
Objects and winds in the Northern Hemisphere are deflected to the right of their paths
Objects and winds in the Southern Hemisphere are deflected to the right of their paths
creates trade winds, convection cells, etc.

Rain Shadow

topography causes windward side of mountains to receive lots of precipitation, making that side lush and green. However, this caused the leeward side to receive little to no precipitation, often causing deserts
ex: California's bread basket, Sierras, then Death Valley

El Nino Souther Oscillation

Occurs once every 5 years when Westerly winds suddenly cease and the natural upwelling of cool water (caused when warmed water is moved away by Westerly winds) stops along the North and South American Pacific.
The cool water, which is nutrient rich, no longer rises to support aquatic life, often causing fishing industry to collapse
also causes many changes in weather like monsoon season and hurricanes

El Nina Southern Oscillation

Opposite of El Nino. Westerlies start up again and begin cooling the surface waters of the South Pacific.

permeability

downward movement of water through soil