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Unit 7: Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test
Recognition
a measure of the memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning
Storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Parallel Processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten
Long-term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills and experiences
Working Memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Explicit Memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (aka declarative memory)
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency of well-learned information such as word meanings
Implicit Memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called non-declarative memory)
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Spacing Effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study (cramming) or practice
Testing Effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
Shallow Processing
encoding on a basic level, based on structure or appearance of words
Deep Processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
Semantic Memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)
Episodic Memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage
Memory Consolidation
the neural storage of long-term memory
Flashbulb Memory
a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Example - the 1989 San Francisco earthquake, 9/11
Long-term Potentiation
an increase of a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Encoding Specificity Principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
State-dependent Memory
what we learn in one state - be it drunk or sober - may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state
Mood-congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Serial Position Effect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and the first (primacy effect) items in a list
Anterograde Amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
Encoding Failure
Much of what we sense we never notice, and what we fail to encode, we will never remember
Storage Decay
Even after encoding something well, we sometimes later forget it. The course of forgetting is initially rapid then levels off with time (Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve)
Retrieval Failure
Proactive Interference
the forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
Retroactive Interference
the backward acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of new information
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories
Reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
Misinformation Effect
occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
Convergent Thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
Divergent Thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error prone - use of heuristics
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than an algorithm
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort evidence that contradicts
Fixation
in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving
Mental Set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Representative Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instance comes to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
clinging to one's initial after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to create meaning
Phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound
Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix)
Grammar, Semantics, Syntax
Grammar: in a language, a system of rules that enable us to communicate with and understand others
Semantics: the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds
Syntax: its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Receptive Language
the ability to understand what is said to them and about them
Babbling Stage
beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-word Stage
the stage in speech development, from about ages 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Two-word Stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two word statement
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a - telegram - go car - using mostly nouns and verbs
Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
Broca's Area
helps control language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's Area
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
Linguistic Determinism
the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis - that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
Linguistic Influence
the weaker form of linguistic relatively - the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is relative to our cultural language)
Unit 11: Intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations
General Intelligence
Charles Spearman (1863-1945) believed we have one general intelligence (g). He thought that a common skill set, the g factor, underlies all intelligent behavior For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence
Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others. People with savant syndrome excel in abilities unrelated to general intelligence
Savant Syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing
Sternberg's Three Intelligences
1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests (academic problem-solving).
2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
L. L. Thurstone (7 Factors)
1. Verbal Comprehension
2. Word fluency
3. Number
4. Space
5. Associative Memory
6. Perceptual Speed
7. Reasoning
Grit
Those who become highly successful tend also to be conscientious, well-connected and doggedly
Emotional Intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions
Intelligence Test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
Achievement Test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
Aptitude Test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance.
Standardization
Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pre-tested group. The group member's scores typically are distributed in a bell-shaped pattern that that forms the normal curve
Normal Curve
(or bell curve) the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Content Validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Predictive Validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by comparing computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
The Flynn Effect
James Flynn (1981). Thinking is conceptual/hypothetical /abstract v. concrete. 1900 3% of Americans were lawyers, doctors, teachers. Today up to 35%. More professions need cognitive thinking
Crystalized Intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, increases up to old age
Fluid Intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, tends to decrease during adulthood
Cohort
a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period
Cross-sectional Study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal Study
Research that follows and retests the same people over time