AP Psych/Chapter 2

Phrenology

Phrenology

Franz Gall proposer

• Studying bumps on the skull could reveal a person’s mental abilities and character traits

Biological Perspective

Concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

-Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior genetics, and evolutionary psychology.

• Examples: Behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists or biopsychologist

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron’s bushy, breaching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses towards the cell body

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin

Sheath/a fatty tissue that insulates axons and speeds their impulses

Glial Cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

Action potential

A neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

{Like a gun, either shoots or not}

Terminal Branches of Axon

Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons

Resting Potential

the state of Positively charged ions outside and Negatively charged ions inside

Sensory Neuron

Run from various types of stimulus receptors

• Touch, odor, taste, sound, vision

Motor Neuron

Transmit impulses/Send messages from the central nervous system to

a) Sensory neurons

b) other neurons

Afferent

Sensory Neurons

Efferent

Motor Neurons

Depolarization

Loss of inside/outside charge difference

• Flipping open & positive ions flood through cell membrane

Central NS

Brain & spinal cord

• encased in bone

Peripheral NS

Carries info to NS and carries info out

Difference between Somatic NS and Autonomic NS

Somatic is communications to the central NS through sensory info, while Autonomic regulates involuntary functions

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap/cleft

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, it travels across the synapse and bind to receptors sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

NT: Acetylcholine

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory

NT: Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

NT: Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

NT: Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal

NT: GABA: (gamma aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter

NT: Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Endorphins

“morphine within”—-natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

Antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

Nervous System/NS

the body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central NS

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; communicate internally and process info between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

reflex

simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers hat are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulated growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue.

• scans show brain anatomy

fMRI

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

Brainstem

oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the base of the brain stem; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brain stem, it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brain stem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brain stem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural Cells covering the cerebral hemispheres;

• the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

Frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear

• receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head

• includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ear

• includes auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

spilt brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Cell body

Neuron's life center, stores and uses the energy necessary for a neuron to transmit the messages to the next neuron

Polarization

used in biological psychology to describe the process of a neural membrane accumulating ions of opposing polarity

Neural Networks

Neurotransmitter-related disorders/malfunctions

Reflexes

Simple actions that are directed by the spinal cord, not the brain

Spinal Cord

The central nervous system's information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system to the brain

• helps carry electrical nerve signals throughout your body

Sympathetic NS

part of autonomic NS: responsible for initiating "fight or flight" response during stressful situations

Parasympathetic NS

part of autonomic NS: responsible for returning the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or arousal

Pons

Part of the brain stem important for sleep cycle, dreams, and facial expressions

Right hemisphere

responsible for controlling the left side of the body and processing tasks related to emotions, creativity, spatial ability, artistic and musical skills

Left hemisphere

manages language and logical thought processing and controls muscles on right side of body

Broca’s Area

area of frontal lobe (only in left hemisphere) that controls language and written expressions (and muscles associated with speaking)

Wernicke’s Area

Area of the temporal lobe (only in left hemisphere) that controls language comprehension

Aphasia

Any of conditions associated with impairment of language, usually damage of Broca's and Wernicke's area

EEG

Non-invasive method used to measure electrical activity in the brain by placing electrodes on the scalp. It records and analyzes brain waves, providing insights into brain functioning and activity