FC Y12: Part 1

Define an aim?

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study.

Define a population?

A larger group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest.

• A sample is drawn from this.

Define a non-directional hypothesis?

Does not state the direction or relationship.

Define a directional hypothesis?

States the difference or relationship.

Define a hypothesis?

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.

3 steps of writing a hypothesis?

1) Operationalise IV

2) Operationalise DV

3) Compare relationship

Define operationalisation?

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured and tested.

Define a variable?

any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation.

Define an extraneous variable?

Any variable other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if not controlled.

What two categories can extraneous variables be separated into?

• Participant variables

  • age, personality, intelligence…

• Situational variables

  • time of day, temperature, voice

Describe a confounding variable?

Any variable, other than the IV, that may directly affect the DV.

• Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV.

Write an example of how to write a debrief?

• Dear participant…

• The aim was to test…

• We did this by …

• Your results will be compared to another group who …

• Your data will remain confidential

• If you consent to my team using your data, please sign below

• if you require a councillor please get in contact via …

Describe the way of obtaining fully informed consent?

Participants should receive a consent letter to be signed, with all information (aims, procedure, purpose, rights).

What does privacy and confidentiality mean in an investigation?

Participants should have the right to control information about themselves (e.g: location, name).

• If this cannot be guaranteed then confidentiality must be ensured and personal data protected.

What is protection from harm in an investigation?

Participants should not face any more danger than they would in everyday life as a result of their involvement.

• The right to withdraw is an important feature in protection.

What is retrospective consent(debrief)?

Participants are asked for their consent, having already taken part in the study.

They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.

Define presumptive consent?

Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar demographic is asked whether they think the study is acceptable.

If this group agree, then the consent of the original participant is ‘presumed’.

Define deception?

Deliberately misleading or withdrawing information from participants at any stage of the investigation.

Define external validity?

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised.

• for other settings (ecological)

• for other groups of people( population)

• over time( historical)

Define mundane realism?

Refers to how an experiment mirrors the real world.

(low mundane realism= very artificial)

Define standardisation?

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

Define generalisation?

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the wider population.

• This is only possible when the sample is representative.

Define randomisation?

The use of chance methods in order to control for the effects of bias in an experiment.

Define the investigator effect?

When an investigator’s subconscious expectation of the outcome disrupts an experiment due to changed behaviour.

Define demand characteristics?

Participants changing behaviour because they know they are in experiment.

This leads them to attempt to sabotage or aid an investigator’s aim.

Ways of dealing with deception and protection from harm?

• Debrief given

• Reminder of their right to withdraw consent and not to have data used.

• Counselling will be given if needed.

What is a double blind procedure?

Neither the participants, nor the researchers who conduct the study are aware of the details of the experiment.

• Attempts to control for confounding effects of demand characteristics.

• Also, controls for investigator effects.

What is a single blind procedure?

When the participant is unaware of details of the experiment.

• Attempts to control for confounding effects of demand characteristics.

Define counter balancing?

An attempt to control for order effects in a repeated measures design.

Half participants experience the condition in one order, while the other half in the other order.

Group 1: A-B

Group 2: B-A

Define random allocation?

An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design, which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as the other.

Name the four types of experiment, and what they are?

Quasi:

• IV is based on naturally occurring differences between people. (age, gender etc)

• No manipulation of the IV.

Field:

• IV is controlled by researcher but in a natural everyday setting. (streets etc)

Lab:

• Highly controlled environment (doesn’t have to be a lab).

• IV is completely controlled.

Natural:

• Researcher has no control of IV.

• It would have occurred without studying it (natural disaster).

Name the pros and cons of lab experiments?

Positives:

• High control of EVs and CV’s.

• Can be replicated easily.

• Easier to demonstrate cause and effect.

Negatives:

• Demand characteristics.

• Low external validity.

• Low mundane realism.

Name the pros and cons of field experiments?

Positives:

• Higher mundane realism.

• Higher external validity.

Negatives:

• Less control of EVs and CVs.

• Thus, cause and effect is harder to establish.

• Ethical issues- consent and privacy.

Outline the pros and cons of quasi experiments?

Positives:

• Often carried out in controlled conditions (high control of EVs and CVs)

• Thus, easier to replicate.

Negatives:

• Confounding variables present as random allocation cannot be used.

• Participant variables also may have an effect.

Explain the pros and cons of natural experiments?

Positives:

• Opportunities for research that couldn't normally be studied- for practical and ethical reasons (e.g: cannot create a hurricane just to study effects…)

• High external validity

Negatives:

• Research worthy events may only happen very rarely.

• It may not be possible to randomly allocate participants to different conditions, so participant variables apply!

Define experimental design?

The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to experimental conditions.

Name three types of experimental design?

• Repeated measures

• Independent groups

• Matched pairs

Describe repeated measures design?

All participants take part in ALL conditions of the experiment.

Describe independent groups experiments?

Participants are allocated different groups where each group experiences one experimental condition.

Describe matched pairs experiments?

Participants may have prior testing before being matched in a pair based on a similar trait relevant to the study.

One member of the pair is assigned to condition A, and the other to condition B.

Explain the pros and cons of matched pairs?

Positives:

• Less order effects.

• Less demand characteristics.

Negatives:

• Less economical, especially if a pre test is required.

• More organisation and time needed for pre tests.

Define bias (in the context of sampling)?

When certain groups may be under or over represented within the selected sample.

Define a sample?

A smaller group selected from a larger population.

What are the 5 types of sampling?

• Random sample

• Volunteer Sample

• Stratified Sample

• Systematic Sample

• Opportunity sample

What is a random sample, and what are the pros and cons?

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

The members of the target population are listed and then assigned a number.

They are then selected via lottery methods.

Positives:

• More representative-equal chance for everyone

• No researcher bias

Negatives:

• Difficult and time consuming.

• Participants may refuse to take part which may result in an unrepresentative sample.

What is a systematic sample, and what are the pros and cons?

A sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population, organised into a certain order e.g: alphabetical, then every nth member of the target population is selected.

Positives:

• Avoids researcher bias.

• Fairly representative.

Negatives:

• Very time consuming.

• Not truly unbiased unless the original number selected using random methods.

What is opportunity sampling, and what are the pros and cons?

A researcher may select anyone who is wiling, available and around at the time. (people in the street)

Positives:

• Convenient

• Saves time, money and effort

Negatives:

• Less representative.

• Findings cannot be generalised to the whole population.

• Researcher bias- they have control over who to pick.

What is volunteer sampling, and what are the pros and cons?

Participants self select or volunteer themselves to be a part of the study.

It is a non probability technique.

Researchers may advertise to get volunteers (e.g: in a newspaper)

Positives:

• Easy, minimal effort required from researcher

• Less time consuming

Negatives:

• Less representative.

• Volunteer bias

• A certain type of person is attracted (perhaps more extroverted etc)

What is a stratified sample, and the pros and cons?

The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups, within the target population.

The subgroups are first identified, then proportions worked out.

Participants in subgroups then worked out via random sampling.

Positives:

• Avoids researcher bias.

• Very representative.

• Generalisable.

Negatives:

• Very time consuming.

• Identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different.

Explain the pros and cons of repeated measures?

Positives:

• Participant variables are more controlled as the participants are in both conditions.

• More economical as half the number of people are needed.

Negatives:

• Order effects can impact results through boredom or fatigue.

• Demand characteristics as a result may be an issue.

Explain the pros and cons of independent groups design?

Positives:

• No order effect, participants are less likely to guess what is going as they only experience it once.

• Thus, less risk of demand characteristics.

Negatives:

• Participant variables can confound results.

  • So random allocation can be used.

• Less economical you need 2x more people than repeated measures.

What is prior general consent?

Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies- including one that will involve deception.

• By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.

Who are the BPS?

The British psychological society.

• They protect the rights, dignity and wellbeing of participants in an investigation.

Describe three main ways of dealing with confidentiality?

• Maintain anonymity

• Remind them that data will be protected

• No sharing of details

What are pilot studies?

A small scale trial run of an actual investigation where the procedure is ‘road tested’.

• This is to check that the investigation runs smoothly.

• Allows researcher to identify potential issues, modify the design or procedure, saving time and money in the long run.

Explain the cost benefit approach?

It is the responsibility of ethics committees to weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals, to decide if it should go ahead.

• Benefits could be the value of groundbreaking research.

• While, costs might be the trauma for participants.