AP psych unit 0

scientific method

self correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

theory

explanation using an integrated set of principles that organzine observation while predicting behaviors and events

hypothesis

testable prediction that lets us test/ reject the theory

peer reviewer

other scientists who are experts that evaluate a study’s theory, originality and accuracy

Falsifiability

possibility that an idea, hypothesis or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Replication

Repeating a research study, usually with different participants, materials, or situations, to test if the original findings extend to new circumstances.

Non experimental methods

• case studies —> in depth analysis of individuals or groups

• naturalistic observation —> recording the natural behavior of many individuals

• surveys and interviews —> asking people questions

Case studies

one person or group studied in depth in hope revealing universal principles (smaller sample size)

what is a limitation of case studies

not representative of population since small study group

Naturalistic Observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate the situation

survey

technique for discovering the self reporting attitudes or behaviors of a group usually by questioning a representative random sample of a group

population

all cases in a group being studied, where samples can be drawn from

representative sample

sample that is drawn from the population that represents the population

generalizability

how much the results of a study can apply to other people or situations

random sampling

sample that fairly represents a population bc each member has equal chance of being chosen

sampling bias

flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample (choosing people with bias)

convenience sampling

collecting data from a group that is readily available (easy way to collect data NOT representative)

wording effect

the way you word a survey effects how people respond to the survey

social desirability bias

bias from people answering in a way they think will please the researcher

correlation

non experimental method that describes the relationship between two or more variables

experiment

attempts to establish a cause and effect connection

what does correlation measure

extent to which two factors vary together

positive correlation

two variables correlate in SAME direction (+1.00- perfect positive)

negative correlation

two variables correlate in OPPOSITE direction (-1.00 perfect neg)

no correlation

two variables do not correlate at all (0.00)

correlation coefficient

statistical measure that helps us figure out how closely two things vary together —> how well either one predicts the other

the bigger the number (either neg or pos)….

the stronger the correlation

Scatterplots

graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables

slope of points

determines direction if relationship between two variables

illusory correlation

perception of relationship when none exists or perception that there is a stronger than actual relationship exists

regression toward the mean

tendency for extreme or unusual scores/events to fall back toward the average

Stroop experiment

• Task: say ink color, not word

• Result: slower when mismatch

• Reason: automatic reading interferes

• Takeaway: shows attention + cognitive control

correlation research

directionality problem: you can not tell which variable causes the other

Correlation does NOT equally

Causation

experiments

research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (IV) to observe effect on some behavior or mental processes (DV)

operational definition

a clear, specific way of measuring or defining a variable in a study so it can be tested

random assignment

assigning participants to a control group and experimental group by chance

what are the two groups in an experiment

• control group

• experimental group

control group

group that is NOT exposed to treatment

experimental group

group that is exposed to treatment (manipulated)

what is the difference between random assignment and random sampling

random assignment

• once people picked they are randomly assigned to group

random sampling

• people you are picking to be in the study

Independent variable

the variable the researcher changes or controls to see its effect

Dependent variable

the variable that is measured to see if it changes because of the independent variable

between subjects

comparing one group of participants to another (ex. one group music another no music)

within subjects

comparing participants to themselves (ex. first time you listen to music, second time you listen no music)

confounding variable

a factor other than the IV that might produce and effect the experiment

what can help mitigate the effects of confounding variable

random assignment

experimenter bias

researchers expectations/ preferences abt outcome of study influences the result

demand characteristics

clues participants discover abt purpose of study; suggest how they act or respond

single blind procedure

participants do not know which group in; stops demand characteristics

double blind procedure

experiments and participants do NOT know who is in each group

variation in data

how spread out scores of data is

placebo effect

subjects belief that treatment will be effective and they think experiment an improvement in health/ wellbeing

placebo

imitation treatment (pill, injection, patch) that lacks main ingredient studied

reliability

consistency/repeatability subjects should answer questions the same way on two diff ocassion

validity

extent which something measures or predicts what suppose to

ethics in research

when studying humans and animals researchers must do their best to protect them from harm

informed consent

participants must be told enough to enable them to chose whether they want to participate

Confidentially

keep info abt individual participant confidential

debriefing

post experiment explanation of the study to participants including purpose and if deception was used

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

organization that enforces ethical guidelines to prevent unnecessary deception and pain

mean

the average ( total sum/ number of things)

median

middle value of data set (has to be lined up from least to greatest)

mode

most frequent value

range

difference between highest to lowest values

qualitative research

in depth narrative data not numerical

quantitative research

numerical data to represent degree

descriptive statistic

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups include measures of central tendency and measure of variation

measures of central tendencies

mean, median, mode, range

percentile rank

percent of scores that are less than given score (79th percentile → 79% higher)

variation of data

how similar or diverse scores in distribution

standard deviation

computed measure of how much scores vary around a mean score

Normal/ Bell curve

most data numbers fall near mean but there are few on either extremes

standard score (Z score)

allows psychologist to compare diff scores on diff scales

skewed curve

lack symmetry around average value scores and can get squeezed to one end

negative skew

right of the mean

postive skew

left of mean

What does low variability in data mean for reliability?

• Scores close together (not spread out).

• Results more consistent & predictable.

  • higher reliability

What does high variability in data mean for reliability?

• Scores spread out (big differences).

• Results less consistent & harder to predict.

  • lower reliability.

critical thinking

process of examining assumptions, evaluating the credibility of sources, recognizing hidden biases, analyzing evidence, and drawing well-reasoned conclusions.

hindsight bias

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have predicted it. Example: two groups given opposite results both see their outcome as obvious

self report bias

when people don’t accurately report or remember their behaviors

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

skewed

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistically significant

statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger, the more one variable can be explained by the other

meta-analysis

statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion