Language & Gender

English Language

What does sociolinguistics study?

How language is shaped by social factors such as gender, power, and context.

What is the key debate in language and gender studies?

Whether women’s talk is naturally cooperative and men’s talk naturally competitive.

Which early linguists argued for clear gender differences in language?

Robin Lakoff, Deborah Fishman, Zimmerman & West.

Which modern linguists challenge biological explanations of gendered language?

Deborah Cameron and Janet Hyde.

What is Difference Theory?

The idea that men and women are socialised into different conversational styles.

How does Difference Theory describe male language?

Competitive and status-driven.

How does Difference Theory describe female language?

Cooperative and supportive.

Which linguist is associated with Difference Theory?

Deborah Tannen.

What is Dominance Theory?

The idea that language reflects patriarchal power structures.

Why do men dominate conversations according to Dominance Theory?

Because they hold greater social power.

Which linguists support Dominance Theory?

Zimmerman & West, Deborah Fishman.

What is Robin Lakoff’s key work?

Language and Woman’s Place (1975).

What linguistic features did Lakoff associate with women’s speech?

Hedges, tag questions, and polite forms.

Hedges: “sort of, maybe, I think”

Tag questions: “Isn’t it?”

Polite forms: “Could you… Would you…”

What are hedges?

Words that soften statements

What are tag questions?

Questions added to statements

What did Lakoff argue these features show?

Uncertainty and lack of confidence.

What is a strength of Lakoff’s theory?

It raised awareness of gender inequality and influenced later research.

What is a weakness of Lakoff’s theory?

It was based on intuition, not empirical data, and reinforced stereotypes.

Do men use tag questions?

Yes

Why is function more important than frequency?

The same feature can have different meanings in different contexts.

How can tag questions be powerful?

They can assert authority, not just seek reassurance.

Fishman (1983)

What is Fishman’s concept of “conversational work”?

The effort made to keep conversations going.

How do women perform conversational work?

By asking more questions and using minimal responses.

What are minimal responses?

Short supportive sounds like “mm” or “yeah”.

What does Fishman’s research suggest about women’s speech?

It is cooperative but involves more interactional labour.

Zimmerman & West (1975)

What did Zimmerman & West study?

Interruptions in mixed-gender conversations.

What did they find?

Men interrupt women significantly more.

Why are interruptions seen as powerful?

They take control of the conversational floor.

Which theory does this support?

Dominance Theory.

Deborah Cameron (2007)

What is “The Myth of Mars and Venus”?

The idea that gender differences in language are exaggerated.

What does Cameron argue matters more than gender?

Context

How does Cameron reinterpret interruptions?

They can signal enthusiasm, not dominance.

What does Cameron reject?

The idea of “natural” male and female language styles.

What is the Dynamic Model of gender and language?

The idea that language use changes depending on situation.

What factors influence language use in the Dynamic Model?

Context, power, role, and audience.

Janet Hyde (1988)

What did Janet Hyde do?

Conducted a meta-analysis of gender and language studies.

What did Hyde find?

More similarities than differences between men and women.

This means that she proved…

the idea of fixed male and female speech styles is exaggerated.

What conclusion did Hyde reach?

Gender differences are small and exaggerated.

Why are women often seen as more talkative?

Social bias — even when men speak more.

How do men dominate conversations?

Interrupting more and controlling topic shifts.

What function do women’s minimal responses serve?

Supporting speakers and allowing them to keep the floor.