Myers' Psychology for AP (Second Edition)
Nucleus
Contains genetic material for the cell
Cell Body (Soma)
Directs actions of the cell
Axon Hillock
Part of the Soma that connects to the axon
Dendrite
Enables neuron to receive information
Axon
Carry electrical signals out of the cells, send chemical messages to adjacent neurons via Axon/Terminals
Myelin Sheath
Insulates and protects Axons, helps speed neural impulses
Sensory Neurons
Bring stimuli in from other senses
Interneurons
Also called associative neurons, provide links between neurons
Motor Neurons
Send info onward to control muscles
Synapse
The gap between neurons where nerve impulses are relayed and neurons communicate by releasing neurotransmitters
Reuptake
The reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters by the neuron sending them out
Resting Potential
Neuron’s normal state
Threshold
Stimulation required to trigger depolarization
Depolarization
Message from another neuron causes inside of the neuron to allow positive sodium ions to flood an aon and open channels in the axon to send messages through
Action Potential
Neural Impulse- brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in axon’s membrane
Refractory Period
Period of time where an axon cannot fire, neuron returns to resting potential
All-or-None Response
Neuron fires each time with the same intensity or not at all
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers which send signals between neurons
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
Stimulate the brain, excites the neuron and increases the likelihood of the neuron firing
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
Calm and slow the brain, inhibits the neuron and decreases likelihood of the neuron firing
Acetylcholine
Excitatory neurotransmitter that is involved in voluntary muscle movement and processes such as memory, thinking, and learning.
Excess- associated with depression
Lack of- associated with demtia/alzheimer’s
Dopamine
Inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter that plays role in memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention, pleasurable reward, behavior, etc,
Excess- associated with schizophrenia
Lack of- associated with depression, tremors, rigid muscles
Endorphins
Inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays role in pain relief, pleasure, and sedation
GABA
Inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays role in calming anxiety and excitation
Excess- associated with over relaxation and sedation
Lack of- associated with anxiety
Glutamate
Excitatory neurotransmitter that plays role in memory and mood regulation, is the key excitatory neurotransmitter
Excess- associated with Parkinson’s, Alzheimer's, and Huntington’s
Lack of- can lead to psychosis, comas, or death
Norepinephrine
Excitatory neurotransmitter that plays role in alterness and arousal
Excess- associated with schizophrenia
Lack of- associated with depression
Serotonin
Inhibitory neurotransmitter that influences learning, memory, happiness, body temperature, sleep, hunger, and sexual behavior
Excess- can lead to heart issues and confused mental state
Lack of- associated with depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Endocrine System
System of body, consists of glands that release hormons into the blood stream
Pituitary Gland
Called the master gland, controlled by the hypothalamus, is responsible for calling other glands into action, and releases hormons that control activity
HGH (Human Growth Hormone)
Influences height, helps build bones and muscle
ACTH
Produced in response to stress, triggers the production of cortisol in adrenal gland
Pineal Gland
Regulates awake/sleep cycle of circadium rhythm, secretes serotonin during the day and melatonin at night
Melatonin
Key hormone that plays a role in sleep to produce sleepiness
Thyroid Glands
Regulates metabolic rate by producing thyroxine
Parathyroid
Helps regulate the level of calcium in the blood
Adrenal Glands
Regulates the body during states of alarm, helps arouse the body and enables the body to cope with stressful physical/emotional situations
Pancreas
Regulates sugar metabolism by producing insulin, controls amount of glucose in your blood stream
Insuline
Controls the amount of glucose in the blood stream
Cortisol
Primary stress hormone, supresses the immune system
Adrenaline (Epinepherine)
Key hormone in the fight or flight response, increases heart rate, enlarges pupils, stops digestion, prepares blood to clot
Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
Key hormone in fight or flight response, increases heart rate AND blood pressure to provide energy to the body
Gonads
Regulate bodily development, reproduction, and sexual characteristics in men/women
Testosterone
Produced by testis, reason for male sex characteristics, sex drive, aggressiveness, and physical growth
Estrogen
Produced by ovaries, reason for female sex characterstics, regulates menstrual cycle and feelings of well-being
Central Nervous System
Consists of brain and spinal cord, responsible for spinal reflexes that are automatic and require no conscious effort (touching something hot and immediately pulling the hand away)
Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of cranial and spinal nerves, handles the CNS’s input and output
Sensory Nerves
Type of nerve responsible for carrying messages from receptors to brain
Motor Nerves
Type of nerve responsible for carrying messages from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and internal organs
Somatic Nervous System
Branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
Automatic Nervous System
Branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls functions of internal organs, has two branches
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Calms and relaxes the body, conserves the body’s energy, causes heart beat to slow, pupils to constrict/shrink, and airways to tighten
Sympathetic Nervous System
Mobilizes body for action, increases energy output, causes heart beat to quicken, pupils to dialte, and airways to open
Forebrain
Largest part of the brain, contains the thalamus, cerebrum, and limbic system
Thalamus
Relay station for transmitting sensory info to other parts of the brain
Cerebrum
Makes up 70% of brain weight, made up of the cerebral cortex and corpus callosum
Cerebral Cortex
Intricate fabric of wrinkles ridges/valleys covering 2 cerebral hemispheres, contains body’s control and information processing center
Corpus Callosum
Fibers that connect cerebral hemispheres, allows info to pass from left to right hemisphere
Limbic System
Contains the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and pituitary gland
Amygdala
Linked to controlling aggression and fear
Hypothalamus
Maintainance center, controls body temp, hunger, thirst, and motivation
Hippocampus
Involved in process of memory (processing new memories)
Midbrain
Located between the forebrain and hindbrain, associated with hearing and vision
Reticular Activating System
Filters stimuli as it travels to the thalamus and relays it to other areas of the brain
Medulla
Part of the brain stem, controls breathing, heart beat, and blood circulation
Pons
Part of the brain stem, bridge that communicates sensory messages from cerebellum to cerebrum, controls movement, sleep, and alterness
Cerebellum
Located in the back of the brain, controls balance and muscle coordination
Brain Stem
Regulates vital cardiac and respitory functions, motor/sensory neurons travel through it and allow for relay of signals between the brain and spinal cord
Frontal lobe
Lobe located behind the forehead, the thinking and doing lobe: plays a role in decision making, cognition, judgement, and reasoning
Primary Motor Cortex
Key structure of the frontal lobe, involved with controlling and processing movements of the body
Broca’s Area
Key structure of frontal lobe, left sid of the brain, enables speech production
Parietal Lobe
Top to rear head, the feeling lobe, plays roles in senses and sensations and processing sensory information
Primary Sensory Cortex
Key structure of the parietal lobe, is responsible for processing tactile information
Temporal Lobe
Located behind the ears/temples on both sides of the brain, the listening and remembering lobe, plays roles in processing auditory information, encoding memory, and language comprehension
Primary Auditory Cortex
Key structire of the temporal lobe, responsible for hearing
Primary Olfactory Cortex
Key structure of the temporal lobe, interprets sense of smell
Wernicke’s Area
Key structure of the temporal lobe, back left side, responsible for speech comprehension
Occipital Lobe
Located in the back of the head, the seeing lobe, plays roles in processing/integrating/interpreting visual stimuli
Primary Visual Cortex
Key structure of occipital lobe, responsible for sight, recognition of size, color, light, motion, and dimensions
Brain Plasticity
Brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new neural pathways based on experience/knowledge
Brain Lateralization
How some neural functions/cognitive processes tend to be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other
Right Brain
Hemisphere of the brain related to creativity, intuitive thoughts, emotional thoughts, impulse, adventure, and left field vision and motor skills
Left Brain
Hemisphere of the brain related to analytical thought, rational thought, planning, logic, and right field vision and motor skills
Split brain
A condition resulting from surgery in which the two hemispheres of the brain are separated by cutting the corpus collosum
Corpus Collosum
Band of neural fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain
EEG
Amplified recording of the electrical waves measured by electrodes placed on the head, shows brain waves in various states
CT Scan
Several x-ray cameras rotate around the brain and combine images into a 3D picture, allows for seeing the structures of the brain in order to see brain damage. does NOT show function or activity
PET Scan
Radioactive glucose inserted into the brain through the blood stream to allow for seeing brain activity during tasks, measures the amount of a chemical various parts of the brain are using
MRI Scan
Magnetic fields and radio waves create detailed images to allow us to see soft tissues of the brain structures, measures density and location
fMRI
MRI that takes successive pics second by second that can be compared, shows brain activity AND functions during cognitive tasks
Duel Processing
Brain’s ability to process info simultaneously on the conscious and unconscious level
Psychoactive Drugs
Chemical substances that alter perceptions and mood, effect the brain synapses by inhibiting, stimulating, or mimicking neurotransmitters
Agnostic Drug
Type of psychoactive drug that MIMICS neurotransmitters
Antagonist Drug
Type of drug that BLOCKS neurotransmitters
Tolerance
Diminishing effect of a drug on an individual over time, results in needing to make more of a substance to produce the same effect
Addiction Disorder
Compulsive patters of drug use associated with physical and psychological dependence
Physical Dependence
Changes in normal body function when a person is not using
Psychological Dependence
mental and emotional changes experienced when a person is not using
Withdrawal
Negative symptons of discomfort/stress that follows discontinued drug use
Depressents
Category of psychoactive drugs, SLOW function/activity of nervous system, cause impared reflexes, lowered inhibitions, drowsiness, reduced tension (alcohol, barbituates, opiates)
Stimulants
Category of psychoactive drugs, increase function/activity of nervous system, cause dialated pupils, diminished appetite, increased energy, and increased heart/breathing rate (cocaine, meth, ecstasy)