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Reading
Process in which the information from the text and the knowledge possessed by the reader get together to produce meaning.
Types of Reading
Scanning
Skimming
Inverted Reading
Critical Reading
Critical Reading
actively analyzing and evaluating a text’s content, arguments, and implications. It goes deeper and evaluates what is read.
Reading Strategies
Previewing
Contextualizing
Questioning
Analyzing
Previewing
skimming through headings, subheadings, and summaries to get an overview of the content
Contextualizing
annotating the text
highlighting key points, making margin notes, and asking questions to engage actively with the material
Questioning
asking critical questions
5W1H
Analyzing
identifying the main argument, supporting evidence, and logical fallacies, if any
Skills of a critical reader
Separating fact from opinion
Detecting propaganda
Recognizing errors in reasoning
Separating Fact from Opinion
A fact is information that can be proved true though objective evidence: physical proof or the spoken or written testimony of witnesses.
Detecting Propaganda
Propaganda uses emotional appeals instead of presenting solid evidence to support a point. (pathos-centric)
Six Common Propaganda Techniques
Bandwagon
Testimonial
Transfer
Plain Folks
Name Calling
Glittering Generalities
Bandwagon
tells us to buy a product or support a certain cause because “everybody else is using it.”
example of bandwagon
A political ad may feature people from all walks of life in support of a certain candidate.
Testimonial
tells us to buy a product or support a certain cause because a celebrity is endorsing it.
the idea is that the testimony of someone we admire will influence us.
take note that famous people get paid to endorse products.
example of testimonial
Famous athletes appear as spokespersons for all sorts of products, from soft drinks to automobiles.
Transfer
most common propaganda technique
products or candidates try to associate themselves with something that people admire
example of transfer
A political candidate holds a sign saying “Vote for Me” and stands next to a beauty queen wrapped in the American banner.
Plain Folks
people present themselves as ordinary, average citizens, hoping we will identify with them and like them
example of plain folks
The presidents of some companies appear in their own ads, trying to show that their giant corporations are just family businesses run by ordinary folks.
Name Calling
use of emotionally loaded language or negative comments to turn people against a rival product, candidate, or movement.
example of name calling
A political candidate labels an opponent “soft,” “radical,” or “wimpy.” Dog whistles are also another example of this, although it is done subtly.
Glittering Generalities
important-sounding but unspecific claim about a product, candidate, or cause.
example of glittering generalities
An ad calls a certain television set “simply the best.”
Recognizing errors in reasoning
Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the place of the real support needed in an argument.
Valid Point
based on a rock-like foundation of solid support.
Fallacious Point
based on a house of cards, and offers no real support at all.
Two common fallacies (Chapter 9, Argument)
Changing the subject
Hasty generalization
Changing the subject
distracts us from the issue by presenting irrelevant support that actually has nothing to do with the argument.
Hasty Generalization
a point has inadequate support or insufficient evidence.
3 Fallacies that ignore the issue
Circular Reasoning
Personal Attack
Straw Man
3 Fallacies that oversimplify the issue
False Cause
False Comparison
Either-or
Circular Reasoning
repeats the point instead of giving evidence of it.
Personal Attack
ignores the issue and concentrates on the character of the opponent.
Straw Man
falsely claims that an opponent holds an extreme position and then opposes that position
False cause
assumes that because event A came before event B, event A caused event B.
False comparison
assumes that two things being compared are more alike than they really are.
Either-or
assumes that there are only two sides to a question.
Hypertextuality
Text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately access which are typically activated by a mouse click.
Hypertext
Any text you click in the World Wide Web
3 main benefits of Hypertext
Hypertext promotes dialogue.
Hypertext can be constructed as a collaborative medium.
Hypertext can be used in nearly any computer-facilitated classroom.
Intertextuality
Textual reference within a text that uses said text as a reference.
It may be the retelling or writing of an old story in a modern context.
Appropriation
adaptation
borrowing from another text; reinterpretation
Allusion
reference to another text, or a reference to a person, place or event
audience has to make the connection
Parody
Funny imitation of a serious piece of literature, writing, art or music
“Pokes fun” at something to entertain the audience.
Common Errors in Reasoning
Conclusion without evidence
Emotional sentences
Selected options
Showing false generosity
Wishful thoughts
One cause
Irrelevant argument
Relating irrelevant events
Assumption of truth for all
A mistake of conflict inflation