Ethical Theories and Moral Philosophy: Utilitarianism, Kant, and Arguments for God's Existence

Utilitarianism

the morally correct action is ultimately what is best for the majority

Why is utilitarianism a consequentialist theory?

it judges actions on their outcomes and not their motivations or intentions

Act utilitarianism

each action is judged based on if it maximizes happiness

Rule utilitarianism

follow rules that maximize happiness not actions

J Bentham

Quantity of pleasure matters most

Mill

quality of pleasure matters

Deontology

moral theory based on duty

Good will

doing the right thing because it is right

Autonomy

self-governance

3 things that make us distinctively human (Kant)

1. Autonomy, 2. rationality, 3. moral agency

Why doesn't Kant ground morality in consequences?

- Consequences depend on luck

- Morality must be based on principles and intentions, which we can control.

Moral

Doing the right thing because you should (moral)

Amoral

no moral accountability

Immoral

doing the wrong thing even though you should not

Hypothetical Imperative

if you want X, do X

Categorical Imperative

applies to everyone (never lie)

Why must we conceive moral law as a "law of nature"?

moral laws must be universal or they are not moral

Kant's test for moral rules

can it be universalized?

What does Kant mean by "To treat persons as ends in themselves"?

recognize someone's dignity not their usefulness

How does Kant justify killing murderers?

murders choose to kill, so the state can choose to kill them

A posteriori

Based on experience (cosmological, teleological).

A priori

Based purely on reasoning (ontological).

Anselm's Ontological Argument

God = "the greatest possible being."

Aquinas' argument against Anselm

humans can't reason God's existence, we must know him through nature

Aquinas' cosmological argument

Everything has a cause → must be a first cause → God.

Aquinas' teleological argument

The universe shows order and purpose → implies a designer → God.

What they have in common

Both rely on empirical observation and claim the world points to a creator.

Peter van Inwagen's theodicy

Evil is necessary for a world where humans have freedom.

J.L. Mackie's argument

If God is all-powerful and all-good, evil should not exist.

Why does Holbach say free will is an illusion?

All decisions are caused by prior events, biology, and environment.

Determinism

No free will; everything is caused.

Libertarianism

Free will is real; not everything is determined.

Compatibilism

Free will and determinism can both be true.

Why libertarians & determinists = incompatibilists

Both agree: If determinism is true, free will cannot exist.

Why compatibilism is a compromise

acting according to your free will without outside influences

Prudential

Believing something because it's useful or beneficial.

Evidential

Believing only when supported by evidence.

Pascal's Wager

Belief in God is a safe bet.

James' pragmatism & theism

- some things we can believe without evidence

W.K. Clifford's evidentialism

We should never believe anything without sufficient evidence.