Specification terms

Unit One

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and spinal chord, where complex decisions are made.

Culture

Refers to the norms and values that exist within any group of people.

Evolution

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.

Computer analogy

The human mind can be compared to a computer with input, processing and output stages.

Genes

Inherited DNA with instructions for building physical characteristics that influence behaviour.

Imitation

Copying behaviour of others.

Information processing

Behaviour can be understood in terms of information flowing through the cognitive system in a series of stages.

Learned response

A behaviour acquired through conditioning, either association (classical), or rewards or punishment (operant).

Neurochemistry

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

Observation

Actively attending to and watching to the behaviour of others.

Social context

Influences from other people, either individually or in groups.

Confabulation

When details are added to a memory to fill in the gaps to make recall meaningful.

Rationalisation

When parts of a memory are distorted to fit your schema.

Reconstructive memory

Pieces of stored information are reassembled during recall. The process is guided by our schemas so that we produce a ‘memory’ that makes sense.

Schema

A mental package of beliefs and expectations that influence memory.

Shortening

When part of a memory is left out, so what remains is shorter.

Associative priming

We process a stimulus more quickly because we earlier encountered a stimulus that is often paired with it.

Cognitive priming

We notice a stimulus more quickly when we see or hear a related stimulus first.

Cognitive scripts

Knowledge of behaviours, roles, outcomes, etc, stored in memory tell us what to expect in a social situation and how to behave.

Repetitive priming

We process a stimulus more quickly because we encountered it earlier.

Semantic priming

We process a stimulus more quickly because we earlier encountered a stimulus directly linked to it in meaning.

Cognitive biases

Errors in how we process information that affect our attention, memory and decision-making.

Confirmation bias

We pay more attention to information that supports our existing beliefs. We may seek it out and ignore contradictory behaviours.

Fundamental attribution error

In explaining the reasons for other people’s behavior, we focus on their personal characteristics and overlook the role of the situation.

Hostile attribution bias

A tendency to assume that someone else’s behaviour has an aggressive or antagonistic motive when its actually neutral.

Conformity

A change in a persons behaviour or opinions as a result of a real or imagine pressure from a person or a group of people.

Informational social influence

We agree with the behaviour of others because we believe it is correct. We accept it because we want to be correct.

Normative social inluence

We agree with the behaviour of others because we want to be accepted and likes, and to avoid being rejected.

Compliance

The individual does not privately agree with the majority but goes along with it anyway, usually because they do not want to be rejected.

Identification

The individual temporarily goes along with the norms and roles of the group because they see membership as a part of their identity.

Internalisation

The individual goes along with the group opinion because they genuinely believe it is correct, so private views are changed.

Social catergorisation

Putting people into social groupings based on their shared characteristics.

Steryotypes

Fixed views of other people based in their perceived membership of a social category.

Classical conditioning

A form of learning where a neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus , taking on its properties so that a new stimulus-response is learned.

Conditioned response (CR)

The response produced by the CS on its own. A new association has been formed so that the NS now produces the UCR, which is now called the CR.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

What the Neutral stimulus is referred to as after pairing.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Any stimulus that only produces the desired response after pairing with the UCS.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Any stimulus that produces a response without any learning taking place.

Negative reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus, which makes the behaviour more likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences: reinforcement or punishment.

Positive reinforcement

The reinforcer is a pleasant consequence of the behaviour, making the behaviour more likely to happen again.

Punishment

The consequence of a behaviour is unpleasant, making the behaviour less likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement

A behaviour is followed by a consequence that increases the probability of the behaviour being repeated.

Imitation

Occurs when a learner reproduces the behaviour they observed being demonstrated by a model. It is more likely to occur when the observer identifies with the model.

Modelling

Either an observer imitates the behaviour of a model or a model demonstrates a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.

Observation

Actively attending to and watching the behaviours of others.

Social learning

A form of learning in which behaviours are acquired through observation, modelling, imitation and vicarious reinforcement. Cognitive factors play a key role.

Vicarious reinforcement

Occurs when a learner observes a models behaviour being reinforced.

Genes

A unit of inheritance. Consist of chemical instructions (DNA). Genes are inherited from parents and contribute to the development of an individuals characteristics.

Genotype

An individuals total set of genes.

Phenotype

The observable characteristics which result from the interaction between a persons genotype and environmental factors.

SRY gene

Sex determining region Y gene which triggers the development of testes in an embryo and the development of that individual into a biological male.

Localisation of function

Specific brain areas control and regulate specific physical and psychological activities.

Neuroanatomy

Structure of the brain and other parts of the nervous system.

Sex differences

The ways in which males and females are not the same.

Neurochemistry

Relating to substances in the brain and other parts of the nervous system that regulate psychological functioning.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals in the brain and nervous system that transmit signals from one neuron to another across synapses.

Sex hormones

Chemicals circulating in the bloodstream that affect the physical development, sexual development and behaviour of females and males.

Environment of evolutionary adaptation (EEA)

The habitat in which a species evolved its most recent adaptations. In humans this ended about 10,000 years ago.

Genome lag

Changes to the environment occur much more rapidly than changes to our genes.

Sexual selection

Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success are more likely to be passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring.

Survival of the fittest

Natural selection selects the genes giving rise to characteristics that promote survival and reproduction so they are retained in the population.

Aggression

Behaviour that is intended to cause psychological or physical injury.

Hostile aggression

Angry and impulsive aggression usually accompanied by physiological arousal.

Instrumental aggression

Goal-directed and planned aggression usually not accompanies by physiological arousal.

Brain structures

Physical components that make up the neuroanatomy of the brain, including the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC).

Brainwashing techniques

Methods used to alter or try to control what a person is thinking. In advertising it is used to entice consumers to accept an adverts message uncritically.

Consumer behaviour

The study of all the activities associated with the purchase and use of good and services.

Subliminal messages

Stimuli that are not perceived consciously. In advertising such messages may be presented quickly or hidden so a consumer is not aware of them.

Bandwagon effect

Behaviour change or purchasing decisions can result from the perception that ‘everyone else is doing it’.

Social proof

In situations where we are not sure what to do or believe we may look to other people for guidance because we think others are better informed.

Neuromarketing

The application of the scientific study of the brain to marketing.

Scanning techniques

Methods used to investigate the brain and other parts of the body. Images are taken of the living brain and sometimes regions of the brain are matched to behavior by asking participants to engage in particular activities whilst the scan is done.

Conformity to gender roles

The extent to which a person identifies to a gender-typical role.

Peer influences

Refers to the effect that other people of the same age have on how we think and behave.

Conditioning

Means ‘learning’. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, which include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.

Recall

Free and cued retrieval of memory.

Recognition

Memory based on recognition (multiple choice questions)

Meaningful cue

Directly linked to memory material.

Cue without meaning

Not linked to memory material.

Memory script

How to behave in certain situations.

Person perception

When you assume personality characteristics go together.

Person schema

Our knowledge and expectations about peoples personalities.

Prejudice

Unfair opinions based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Treating someone differently because of a stereotype.

In-group

Commands a members esteem.

Out-group

Viewed as negative by in group.

Group cohesion.

The extent to which group members are psychologically bonded, and work together.

Task roles

Focus on completing the task. Leaders who co-ordinate the task, who energise the group to be efficient.

Social roles

Focus on creating harmony in the group and develop relationships. Encourage, support and praise others.

Procedural roles

Ensure everyone has a say, keep track of activities, record progress.

Individualist roles

Seek to undermine the group. Resist ideas but offer little, criticise others work, distract people.

Common goals

Shared motivation, helps cohesion, all feel more involved, helps measure progress.

Groupthink (Janis 1982)

In a group there is a strong need to agree, regardless of the correctness of the decision. Often refuse to listen to opposing ideas.

Social facilitation.

We are more likely to perform well if observed by others.

Self-concept

How a person perceives themself.

Self-image

How we see ourself.

Self-esteem

The opinion we have about ourselves.

Self-efficacy

Our belief in our own capabilities.