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Who were Ladinos?

Africans familiar with Iberian culture who traveled with Europeans to the Americas.

What were Atlantic Creoles?

Culturally mixed Africans who worked as intermediaries before chattel slavery dominated.

Name two Africans who joined early expeditions.

Juan Garrido and Estevanico.

What was Juan Garrido known for?

First African to plant wheat in Mexico and served with Hernán Cortés.

What was Estevanico known for?

Enslaved Moroccan explorer who traveled across the American Southwest.

How many enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas?

Over 12.5 million.

What percent arrived directly in the U.S.?

About 5% (around 388,000 people).

Which were the top enslaving nations?

Portugal, Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands.

Main African regions where captives came from?

West and Central Africa (Senegambia, Ghana, Benin, Nigeria, Angola, etc.).

Cultural contributions from enslaved Africans?

Gullah language, Hoodoo religion, African rhythms, and cuisine.

What was the first part of the journey for captives?

March from inland Africa to the coast, held in barracoons.

What was the Middle Passage?

The brutal Atlantic voyage where around 15% of captives died.

How did the slave trade affect African societies?

Weakened political systems and caused long

What are slave narratives?

Accounts by formerly enslaved people describing slavery’s horrors.

Why are slave narratives important?

They serve as historical evidence and early American literature.

How did enslaved people resist on ships?

Revolts, suicides, hunger strikes, sabotage.

What was the La Amistad case?

1839 slave ship revolt; Mende captives won freedom in U.S. Supreme Court.

How did resistance impact the slave trade?

Made voyages more expensive and inspired antislavery movements.

What were slave ship diagrams used for?

To show inhumane conditions and fuel abolitionist campaigns.

When was the international slave trade banned in the U.S.?

1808.

What replaced the transatlantic trade?

The domestic slave trade (“Second Middle Passage”).

How many people were moved in the domestic trade?

Over 1 million enslaved Americans.

What invention expanded cotton slavery?

The cotton gin.

What was the “Georgia man”?

Trader feared for taking enslaved people farther South.

What were the main types of enslaved labor?

Agricultural, domestic, and skilled work.

What was the gang system?

Groups worked sunup to sundown under overseers (used for cotton).

What was the task system?

Workers completed a quota then had personal time (used for rice).

How were Northern institutions connected to slavery?

Banks, factories, and universities profited or used enslaved labor.

What lasting impact did slavery have on U.S. wealth?

Created huge racial wealth gaps that persist today.

What are slave codes?

Laws controlling enslaved peoples’ movement, education, and rights.

What constitutional clauses protected slavery?

The 3/5 Compromise and Fugitive Slave Clause.

What was the Dred Scott decision?

Declared enslaved people were property, not citizens (1857).

How did rebellions affect slave codes?

They got stricter after uprisings like Stono (1739).

What did Partus Sequitur Ventrem mean?

“Birth follows the womb” — children inherited mother’s enslaved status.

Why was Partus used by enslavers?

To maintain slavery through generations after trade bans.

What was the one

drop rule?

What was hypodescent?

Assigning mixed children to the lower

How did African Americans preserve culture?

Through music, storytelling, crafts, and language.

What is Gullah?

A creole language mixing African and English elements.

What were spirituals used for?

Expressing faith, hope, and coded resistance messages.

What African instruments influenced American music?

Drums, banjos, rattles.

How did spirituals evolve?

Into blues, gospel, and other modern genres.

What happened to the African

born population after 1808?

What was the American Colonization Society?

Group that tried to send free Blacks to Africa.

How did ethnonyms change over time?

African → Colored → Negro → Black → African American.

What was Fort Mose?

The first free Black town in what’s now the U.S. (Spanish Florida).

What was the Stono Rebellion?

1739 slave uprising in South Carolina led by Jemmy; aimed for Florida.

What did the rebellion cause?

Harsher slave codes and British attacks on Spanish Florida.

What was the Haitian Revolution?

1791–1804 revolt that created the first free Black republic.

Who were its leaders?

Toussaint L’Ouverture, Jean

How did it affect the U.S.?

Led to the Louisiana Purchase (Napoleon needed cash).

How did France respond?

Demanded Haiti pay 150 million francs in “reparations.”

Why is the revolution important?

It proved enslaved people could win freedom and inspired other revolts.