US Politics: Pressure groups

what is pluralism

a condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, sources of authority, etc., coexist.

what do pressure groups reflect of America

the wide variety of pressure groups in the USA reflect the country's political pluralism

what is America's political pluralism? what do these groups do?

the representation of and participation by numerous and competing groups organised around identity like class, race, ethnicity.

a huge and diverse nation like the US has many.

what do pressure groups seek to do? why are they so prevalent in US politics?

seek to influence policy-makers and voters

as a result from the First Amednment and guaranteed freedom of political expression

what is the elitist theory of political pluralism?

the argument that rather than competing equally, some pressure groups, especially well funded ones with close ties to politicians/government, are more powerful than others.

what are the different types of pressure groups

outside/insider

cause (promotional)/sectional (interest)

what are the key characteristics of outsider pressure groups

give an example

- smaller

- less wel ffunded//connected

- seeking radical change often

- many use direct action to gain media coverage

Black Lives Matter

what are they key characteristics of insider pressure groups

example

- well funded

- strong ties to the political establishment

- methods are low-profile like hiring lobbyists to posit their case to politicians and federal government

- can raise large sums of money to spend on parties / to oppose or support candidates.

NORPAC, the pro-Israel group splits their money more equally between candidates of both main parties.

what are cause/promotional groups' characteristics

example

- more altruistic in their aims

- seeking policy outcomes that are morally right from their perspective, as opposed to benefitting their supporters

PETA animal righta

what are sectional/interest groups' characteristics?

example

- seek to defend interest of their members

- members share a common characteristic/identity

Labour union AFL-CIO look to protect and promote interests of working American members.

give an example of a hybrid pressure group

the NRA (National Rifle Association)

seeks to defend the cause of the right of Americans to bear arms (2nd amendment) and represents the interests of gun owners.

what are the main pressure group tactics and methods?

candidate endorsement and political campaigning

- lobbying Congress, state legislatures and federal agencies

- lobbying the Supreme Court

- direct action

- boycotts

explain the method of:

candidates endorsement and political campaigning

give examples

- many US pressure groups focus especially on securing the election of candidates favourable to their policy positions and objectives.

e.g. EMILY's List raised and donated over $45 million for the 2020 election. trying to elect pro-choice, progressive women to Congress.

- they often directly endorse candidates.

e.g. American Federation of Teachers publicly backed Joe Biden for president in 2020 while Americans for Limited Government backed Trump.

explain the method of:

lobbying Congress, state legislatures and federal agencies

give examples

- pressure groups lobby various Access points in the USA (different levels of government and decision making that pressure groups target)

- they effectively follow the scent of power

- many large pressure groups have offices in state capitals ready to supply specialist policy information to legislators and bureaucrats

- many lobbyists are former government officials, and Revolving Door Syndrome is often seen.

- lobbying federal agencies can be highly effective as this is where the detailed regulations to enforce a law are drawn up

e.g. Goldman Sachs and JP Morgan met with relevnat federal agencies more than 350 times between 2010 and 2012 to lobby them.

what is an amicus curiae brief

meaning 'friend of the court'

a written argument submitted to the court of law by a person or group that has an interest in the case being considered.

pressure groups often use these to influence the court and employ expert lawyers to write them.

explain the method of:

lobbying the Supreme Court

example

- pressure groups draw up amicus curiae briefs for relevant SC cases to try and influence the justices.,

- also lobby the Senate during nominations to the SC.

e.g. in 2020 millions of dollars were spent campaigning for and against nomination of Amy Coney Barrett. groups like Catholic Vote worked to secure her nomination whilst 150 civil rights groups campaigned against.

explain the method of:

direct action

example

- often takes form of demonstrations, strikes, sit-ins

- can result in violence

e.g. Martin Luther King led the march on Washington in 1963.

e.g. Black Lives Matter protest in 2016, 5 police officers were ambushed and killed.

explain the method:

boycotts

example

some civil rights campaigners use them

e.g. Rosa Parks and the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955-56

- economic pressure is used by businesses and public figures to pressurise lawmakers.

what are the factors affecting the success of a pressure group?

- resources (money and membership)

- status: insider or outsider

- strength of groups with opposing objectives

- political climate (which party controls Congress/White House)

- links with legislators and bureaucrats

- endorsement from politicians and celebrities, e.g. Ariana Grande supporting BLM.

what is an incumbent advantage

the benefits enjoyed by existing senators and House representatives, such as better funding and greater name recognition.

how do pressure groups affect election funding?

general explanation?

predictable party patterns for each party? examples

many pressure groups are heavily involved in election campaigns, epsecially in raising and distributing money to favoured candidates.

- most follow predictable party patterns with labour unions and pro-choice group overwhelmingly backing Democrat candidates whilst donations from oil and gas sectors back Republicans.

e.g. the labour sector donated over $27 million to Biden's campaign in 2020 whilst 84% of donations that went to Republican candidates were from the oil and gas sector

what is a PAC

how much money they can give to candidates and then parties?

nature of donations?

give an example of a prominent pressure group's PAC

Political Action Committee that raises and spend 'hard' money contributions for the specific purpose of electing or defeating candidates and parties. they can give up to $5000 to a candidate per election cycle and up to $15000 annually to a party.

donations must be formally recorded and made public

the NRA's Political Victory Fund which spent just under $20 million in the 2020 election races.

what are Super PACs?

when emerged?

what does it mean pressure groups can do?

size in recent years?

Super PACs emerged after 2010 court cases which granted First Amendment rights of political expression to corporations, labour and pressure groups

- it measn they can effectively raise and spend unlimited amounts on election campaigning, provided the expenditure is independent and unco-ordinated with candidates' official campaigns and parties.

in essence, Super PACs raise and spend 'soft money'

- their growth has significantly increased the amount of political donations.

most leading candidates have Super PACs supporting their campaigns. e.g. Biden's main Super PAC was Priorities USA Action.

do Super/PACs play too big a role in US elections?

yes

- loophole to what limits?

- who do they favour?

- too much?

- legislators?

- undermine what?

- PACS and Super PACs are increasingly significant in fundraising for elections and are a vital method of loopholing campaign finance limits

- the huge sums spent by PACS favour well-connected 'establishment' candidates

- rich donors wield too much power and influence over elections, leading to charges of legalised bribery

- legislators are too dutiful to wealthy pressure groups as opposed to the law and constitution

- they undermine the role of political parties

do Super/PACs play too big a role in US elections?

no

- rich candidates?

- Supreme Court

- no guarantee?

- political right?

- congressmen role?

- party allegiances?

- rich candidates (like Trump) can self-fund partly anyhow.

- blame the Supreme Court for decisions for the growth of Super PACs

- superior funding does not guarantee victory. e.g. Clinton outspent Trump in 2016 and lost.

- the right to make political donations is a fundamental political right in a democracy

- Congressmen cannot be 'bought' and don't forget the views of their voters and donors.

- party allegiance is reinforced by donations from groups that align with their 'natural' party anyway. e.g. LGBTQ groups such as the Human Rights Campaign normally support and endorse Democrats.

what does the term 'iron triangle' refer to?

what are they seen to be working for / against?

the tight policy networks formed by relationships between pressure groups, bureaucratic systems and Congress

they are seen as working against the public interest and instead favouring powerful corporate interests.

give an example of an iron triangle for a corporate industry/group.

major pharmaceutical companies often have close ties with the Food and Drug Administration (part of the federal bureaucracy) whilst also donating to legislators who sit on relevant congressional committees, such as the House Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration.

are US pressure groups too powerful? YES

- corruption potential?

- legislators afraid of?

- one-sided?

- political parties?

- organisation?

- corporate influence?

- potential for corruption and undue influence as many lobbyists are former congressmen or bureaucrats (revolving doors)

- legislators are afraid of upsetting key pressure groups, e.g. many Republicans and the NRA

- advice from pressure groups is one sided and can harm public interest

- undermine and weaken political parties

- not all groups are equally powerful and well organised, e.g. drug companies versus patient groups

- accusations of influence being bought by the most wealthy elites and writing legislation from corporate groups.

are US pressure groups too powerful? no

- regulation

- representation

- technical info?

- factions

- scrutiny

- lobbyists are regulated to an extent. e.g. 2007 Honest Leadership and Open Government Act

- represent and reflect vast array of groups, beliefs and causes in diverse USA

- provide legislators with useful technical information when drawing up bills

- parties are already very wide and pressure groups simply operate under one of them and consolidate and shape the internal coalitions that constitute the parties

- can increase levels of scrutiny of both Congress and the executive.