AP Gov Vocab

Democracy

A system where people have power through voting or participation.

Natural Rights

Rights people are born with, such as life, liberty, and property.

Social Contract

The idea that people give up some freedoms to the government in exchange for protection.

American Political Culture

Shared beliefs and values like liberty, equality, and individualism.

Popular Sovereignty

The idea that the people are the ultimate source of government power.

Republicanism

People elect leaders to represent them and make decisions.

Liberty

Freedom from government interference or oppression.

Civil Society Groups

Voluntary groups outside the government, like clubs or advocacy groups.

Pluralist Theory

Politics works through many competing groups influencing policy.

Elitist Theory

A small group of powerful individuals or organizations shape policy.

Political Institutions

Structures like Congress, the Presidency, and the Courts.

Constitutional Republic

A government where representatives are elected and their power is limited by a constitution.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first national government, with a weak national government and strong states.

Perpetual Union

The idea that the states agreed to stay united under a national framework.

Unicameral

A legislature with one house.

Shays’s Rebellion

A revolt by farmers that showed the Articles government was too weak.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting where the Constitution was created.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

A court order requiring someone under arrest to be brought before a judge.

Bills of Attainder

Laws that punish people without a trial.

Ex Post Facto Laws

Laws that criminalize actions retroactively.

Virginia Plan

Proposed representation based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed equal representation for all states.

Grand Committee

Group that created the Great Compromise.

Great Connecticut Compromise

Created a bicameral Congress (House + Senate).

Bicameral

Two-house legislature

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted enslaved people as 3/5 for representation and taxes.

Compromise on Importation

Congress could not ban the slave trade until 1808.

Separation of Powers

Government power is split among three branches.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the others

Executive Branch

Enforces laws

Judicial Branch

Interprets laws

Amendment

A formal change to the Constitution

Federalists

Supported a strong central government and the Constitution

Anti-Federalists

Opposed a strong central government; wanted more state power.

Federalist Papers

Essays supporting the Constitution

Federalist No. 51

Explains checks and balances and separation of powers

Federalist No. 10

Argues that factions are controlled best by a large republic

Faction

A group with a common interest that may oppose others.

Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist essay arguing the national government would be too powerful.

Federalism

Power shared between national and state governments

Unitary System

Central government holds most of the power

Confederal System

States hold most of the power; national government is weak

Federal System

Power is divided between federal and state governments

Enumerated/Expressed Powers

Powers specifically listed for the federal government

Exclusive Powers

Powers only the national government can exercise.

Implied Powers

Powers not listed but necessary to carry out enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress power to regulate interstate and foreign trade

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress flexibility to make laws needed to do its job.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes federal law as superior to state law.

Tenth Amendment

Reserves powers to the states if not given to the federal government

Reserved Powers

Powers left to the states.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both national and state governments

Full Faith and Credit Clause

States must respect other states’ laws and legal decisions

Extradition

Returning a person accused of a crime to the state where it occurred

Privileges and Immunities Clause

States cannot discriminate against citizens of other states.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Upheld implied powers and federal supremacy

Thirteenth Amendment

Abolished slavery.

Fourteenth Amendment

Guarantees citizenship and equal protection

Fifteenth Amendment

Protects the right to vote regardless of race.

Dual Federalism

Clear division of state and federal powers (“layer cake”).

Selective Incorporation

Process of applying the Bill of Rights to states through the 14th Amendment.

Cooperative Federalism

Federal and state governments work together (“marble cake”)

Grant-in-Aid

Money given by the federal government to states

Fiscal Federalism

How the federal government uses money to influence states

Categorical Grants

Federal money with specific rules and conditions.

Unfunded Mandates

Requirements the federal government imposes without funding

Block Grants

Federal money with broad guidelines

Revenue Sharing

Federal money given with no strings attached (ended in the 1980s).

Devolution

Returning power back to the states.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Limited Congress’s use of the commerce clause

Gonzales v. Raich (2005)

Expanded federal commerce power to include marijuana regulation.

Participatory Democracy

A model where citizens are heavily involved in the political process.

Inalienable Rights

Rights that cannot be taken away by the government.

wickard v. filburn (1942)

Gave Congress the ability to regulate even small, local activities if those activities, when added up across the country, have a substantial effect on interstate commerce.

Marginal Cost

The cost of producing one additional unit.

Monopoly

A market dominated by one seller with no close substitutes.

Sunk Cost

A cost that has already been spent and cannot be recovered.

Price Floor

A minimum legal price established for a product.

Substitutes

Goods used in place of one another

Normal Profit

The level of profit where total revenue equals total cost

Supply Curve

Graph showing quantities producers are willing to sell at different prices

Perfect Competition

A market with many sellers offering identical products

Price Ceiling

A maximum legal price set by the government

Demand Curve

Graph showing quantities consumers are willing to buy at different prices

Fixed Cost

 A cost that stays the same regardless of how much is produced.

Monopolistic Competition

A market with many sellers offering differentiated products

Equilibrium

The point where supply equals demand

Price Elasticity of Demand (q→p)

Measurement of how quantity demanded responds to price changes

Complements

Goods used together

Elastic Demand

When quantity demanded changes a lot in response to a price change

Inelastic Demand

When quantity demanded changes very little even if price changes

Unit Elastic

When the percentage change in quantity demanded equals the percentage change in price

Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) (c→p)

A measure of how sensitive consumers are to price changes

Federal Funds Rate

Interest rate banks charge each other for overnight loans

Inflation

A rise in the general price level over time

Monetary Policy Tools

Fed tools like open-market operations and reserve requirements

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The total value of goods and services produced annually

Fiscal Policy

Government taxation and spending decisions

Structural Unemployment

Unemployment caused by a mismatch between skills and jobs

Recession

A decline in economic activity lasting at least six months