Political Psychology: Final

Core assumptions: Behaviorism and Learning

Believes people start out like blank slates—everything we do is learned from our environment. For example, if a child is rewarded for sharing, they’ll share more often. Behaviorists think that if society shaped everyone’s rewards and punishments perfectly, negative traits like prejudice could disappear.

Reinforcement and punishment:

• (like praise or a treat) makes behavior happen more often.

• (like scolding) might stop bad behavior short-term but can make people fearful or resentful.
  Example: A teacher gives gold stars for homework (reinforcement) rather than yelling for missed work (punishment).

Observational learning/modeling:

Albert Bandura’s “Bobo doll” experiment showed kids copy behavior they see—even aggression. If a child sees an adult hit a toy, they’re likely to imitate that behavior.

Evidence and limitations:

Conditioning explains habits (like fear of dogs after a bite), but can’t explain everything. Some animals learn faster with certain associations (like avoiding bitter food), and people can imagine outcomes or plan ahead, which behaviorism doesn’t cover.

Behaviorism vs. cognitive approaches:

Cognitive psychology adds that our thoughts and interpretations matter. You don’t just react to stimuli—you think about them. For example, you might study hard because you believe good grades help your future, not just for praise.

Behaviorism vs. biological constraints:

Some behaviors are easier to learn because biology “prepares” us. For example, you can quickly learn to fear snakes but not flowers. Instincts can override learned behaviors.

Freud’s model: made of three parts

• Id (instincts—“I want it now!”),

• Superego (moral voice—“That’s wrong.”),

• Ego (balance between the two—“Maybe later.”).
  For example, when dieting, the id wants cake, the superego says no, and the ego decides when or how to have it responsibly.

The unconscious:

Our behavior is shaped by hidden memories, fears, or desires we’re not aware of—like snapping at someone when really stressed about something else.

Defense mechanisms:

The ego protects us from anxiety by twisting reality a bit—for example:

• Projection: Calling someone selfish when you’re feeling selfish.

• Rationalization: Making excuses for poor behavior.

Reaction formation: Acting extra nice to someone you secretly dislike.

Unconscious drives in politics:

People often vote based on emotional symbols or fear appeals rather than logic. A flag or slogan can trigger identity-based feelings that shape decisions.

Evidence and limitations:

Some research supports ideas like repression and unconscious influence, but Freud’s theories can’t always be tested scientifically or proven wrong.

Core ideas: Humanistic Approaches

Humanistic psychology (Maslow, Rogers) focuses on free will, self-growth, and the good in people. Instead of analyzing childhood trauma or conditioning, it looks at how to live authentically and reach your potential.

Maslow’s hierarchy:

People aim first for basic needs (food, safety), then love, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization—becoming your best self. But sometimes creativity or purpose emerges even in hardship.

Rogers and unconditional positive regard:

People flourish when accepted without conditions. A child who feels loved no matter what is more likely to be authentic and mentally healthy.

Political implications:

Humanistic thinking supports policies that help people meet basic needs (like food, healthcare, education), so they can focus on higher goals and ethical growth.

Critique of other theories:

Humanists reject behaviorism’s “robot” view and Freud’s “dark unconscious,” believing people can change and grow positively.

Critiques of humanism:

Some say it’s overly optimistic, vague, and focused on individual happiness rather than responsibility or community good.

Evolutionary explanations:

Many behaviors—like forming groups, fearing snakes, or protecting children—helped our ancestors survive. But those instincts can misfit the modern world (like craving sugar when food is abundant).

Status and aggression:

Male aggression often traces back to competition for mates or status. For example, fights over respect or reputation may echo survival instincts.

In-group favoritism:

Humans evolved to favor their “tribe.” That’s why people still show bias toward their country, group, or team—it once provided safety and cooperation.

Gendered behavior:

Evolution shaped different reproductive strategies. For instance, men may stress sexual fidelity, while women may prioritize emotional commitment or resource security.

Mismatch theory:

Our brains evolved for danger and scarcity, but modern abundance confuses those instincts—leading to stress, overconsumption, or competitiveness.

Critiques:

People argue evolutionary psychology sometimes “makes up” stories after the fact, exaggerates gender differences, or ignores culture and learning.

Evolved vs. cultural behavior:

Evolution gave us basic drives (like bonding), but culture and upbringing decide how we express them—romance looks very different across societies.

Brain and politics:

Studies show conservatives tend to have larger amygdalas (linked to fear response), while liberals show more activity in the prefrontal cortex (linked to reasoning).

Genes vs. environment:

Both matter. Genetics set a baseline, but experiences—like parenting, culture, or trauma—shape how traits appear.

Heritability:

How much of a trait comes from genes depends on the environment. In stable settings, genes show more influence; in hardship, environment matters more.

Twin and adoption studies:

Identical twins (even raised apart) share traits like intelligence or ideology. But adoption studies show environment still has a big effect too.

Foster care research:

Romanian orphan studies showed neglected kids improved dramatically when moved early to loving homes—proof that nurture can heal damage.

IQ and Flynn Effect:

Average IQs have risen over decades due to better nutrition and education—not evolution.

Cross-national differences:

Countries differ in IQ and height mainly due to economic and health differences, not genes.

Biology vs. social shaping:

While males and females differ slightly on average in skills, education and culture hugely influence performance and equality.

Political implications:

Both nature and nurture matter—good social policies can raise outcomes even if genes set some limits.

Heritability of intelligence and test differences:

Men and women have equal average IQs but differ slightly in strengths (spatial vs. verbal). Gender gaps in math have narrowed as opportunities improved.

Big Five traits:

Personality can be summarized by five main traits:

• Openness (curious vs. traditional)

• Conscientiousness (organized vs. easygoing)

• Extraversion (social vs. quiet)

• Agreeableness (kind vs. tough-minded)

• Neuroticism (emotionally stable vs. anxious)

These stay fairly stable over time.

Stability and heritability:

Personality settles as people age—most become more reliable (conscientious) and less moody (neurotic). Genetics explains part, but experiences matter too.

Personality predicting outcomes:

Conscientious people tend to succeed; neurotic people struggle with mood issues. Personality shapes health, career, and relationships.

Politics and personality:

Open people lean liberal (value change), conscientious people lean conservative (value order). This pattern repeats worldwide.

Person–situation debate:

Both traits and context matter. A usually patient person might still snap under stress—so behavior is a mix of who you are and where you are.

Nature vs. nurture:

Genes shape potential, environment shapes outcome. Neither fully determines who you become—they interact.

Stability vs. change:

Personality solidifies over time but can still shift from major events or life roles (like becoming a parent).

Biology vs. environment:

Genes give a blueprint, but experiences (like trauma or education) determine how it’s expressed.

Individual vs. situation:

Sometimes personality drives behavior; other times context dominates—like quiet people acting confident when leading a project.

Cultural influence:

Western cultures prize independence; Eastern cultures prize harmony. Same trait—say assertiveness—might look different across settings.

Interactionist view:

Biology and environment constantly influence each other. A kid born energetic might seek active environments, reinforcing that trait.

Policy implications:

Since early experiences shape lifelong traits, investments in early education and support give society the best long-term results