CRIM/SOC 12 Introduction to Criminology/Sociology Exam 2 Study Guide

A comprehensive set of 51 vocabulary flashcards based on key concepts from the Criminology/Sociology course material.

Anomie

According to Durkheim, an anomic society is one in which rules of behavior have broken down during periods of rapid social change or crisis.

At-risk

Children and adults who lack the education and skills needed to be effectively in demand in modern society.

Cultural deviance theory

Branch of social structure theory viewing strain and social disorganization as resulting in a lower-class culture that conflicts with conventional norms.

Collective efficacy

Social control exerted by cohesive communities, based on mutual trust, including intervention in supervision of children.

General strain theory (GST)

According to Agnew, the view that multiple sources of strain interact with an individual’s emotional traits and responses to produce criminality.

Social disorganization theory

Branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown of
institutions such as the family, school, and employment in low-income neighborhoods.

Social structure theory

The view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime.

Strain theory

Branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict between people’s goals and the means available to obtain them.

Social learning theory

The view that people learn crime techniques and attitudes from close relationships with criminal peers.

Social process theory

The view that criminality results from interactions with various organizations and processes in society.

Social reaction (labeling) theory

The view that significant labeling by society can lead individuals to embrace criminal identities.

Social control theory

The view that everyone has the potential to become a criminal but is controlled by their bonds to society. Crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken.

Differential association theory

The view that people commit crime when their social learning leads
them to perceive more definitions favoring crime than favoring conventional behavior.

Differential reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced by rewards or punishments while interacting with others; also known as direct conditioning.

Neutralization techniques

Methods of rationalizing deviant behavior, such as denying responsibility or blaming the victim.

Commitment to conformity

Obedience to the rules of society and the avoidance of nonconforming behavior that may jeopardize an individual’s reputation and achievement.

Culture conflict

Result of exposure to opposing norms and definitions of right and wrong.

Critical criminologists

Researchers who view crime as a function of the capitalist mode of production and not the social conflict that might occur in any society regardless of its economic system.

Instrumental theory

The view that criminal law is used as a capitalistic instrument for controlling the lower class.

Patriarchy

A society in which men dominate public, social, economic, and political affairs.

Power–control theory

The view that gender differences in crime are a function of economic power (class position, one-earner vs. two-earner families) and parental control (paternalistic vs. egalitarian families).

Restorative justice

Using humanistic, nonpunitive strategies to right wrongs and restore social harmony.

Structural theory

The view that law and criminal justice serve to defend and preserve the capitalist system.

Adolescent-limited offender

Offender who follows the most common criminal trajectory, in which
antisocial behavior peaks in adolescence and then diminishes.

Age-graded theory

A developmental theory that posits that individual traits and childhood experiences are important to understand the onset of delinquent and criminal behavior but that experiences in young adulthood and beyond can redirect criminal trajectories or paths.

Authority conflict pathway

The path to a criminal career beginning with stubborn behavior and parental defiance.

Covert pathway

A path to a criminal career that begins with minor underhanded behavior and progresses to fire starting and theft.

General theory of crime (GTC)

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, a developmental theory that
modifies social control theory by integrating concepts from biosocial, psychological, routine activities, and rational choice theories.

Latent trait theories

Theoretical views that criminal behavior is controlled by a master trait, present at birth or soon after, that remains stable and unchanging throughout a person’s lifetime.

Life course persister

A small group of offenders whose criminal careers extend into adulthood.

Life course theories

Theoretical views studying changes in criminal patterns throughout a person's life.

Overt pathway

Pathway to a criminal career that begins with minor aggression, leads to physical fighting, and eventually escalates to violent crime.

Trajectory theory

A view of criminal career formation that holds there are multiple paths to crime.

Turning points

According to Laub and Sampson, the life events that alter the development of a criminal career.

Child abuse

Any physical, emotional, or sexual trauma to a child for which no reasonable explanation, such as an accident, can be found. Child abuse can also be a function of neglecting to give proper care and attention to a young child.

Cycle of violence

A hypothesis that suggests that a childhood history of physical abuse predisposes the survivor to becoming violent themselves in later years.

Expressive violence

Violence aimed at venting rage or frustration rather than for profit.

Instrumental violence

Violence aimed at improving one's financial or social position.

Murder

The unlawful killing of a human being with malicious intent.

Felony murder

A homicide that occurs during the commission of another felony, legally classified as first-degree murder.

Premeditation

The act of considering a homicide before it occurs.

Manslaughter

A homicide without malice.

Involuntary or negligent manslaughter

A homicide that occurs as a result of acts that are negligent and without regard for the harm they may cause others, such as driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

Voluntary or nonnegligent manslaughter

Homicide committed in the heat of passion or during a sudden quarrel although intent may be present, malice is not.

Second-degree murder

A homicide with malice but not premeditation or deliberation, as when a desire to inflict serious bodily harm and a wanton disregard for life result in the victim’s death.

Serial killer

A person who kills three or more people in separate events carried out while maintaining their normal lifestyle in between events. The murder victims, although unknown to the killer, may share a similar characteristic or lifestyle.

Mass murder

The killing of a large number of people in a single incident by an offender who typically does not seek concealment or escape.

Narcissistic personality disorder

A condition marked by a persistent pattern of self-importance, need
for admiration, lack of empathy, and preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love.

Hate crimes

Acts of violence or intimidation designed to terrorize or frighten people considered undesirable because of their race, religion, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation.

Stalking

A pattern of behavior directed at a specific person that includes repeated physical or visual proximity, unwanted communications, and/or threats sufficient to cause fear in a reasonable person.

Subculture of violence

Norms and customs that, in contrast to society’s dominant value system, legitimize and expect the use of violence to resolve social conflicts.

Causes of Violence

Personal traits, child abuse and neglect, human instinct, exposure to violence, substance abuse, firearm availability, cultural values, national values.

Types of Rape

Date rape, rape on campus, marital rape, statutory rape, rape by deception, sex in authority relations.

Causes of Rape

Evolutionary factors, male socialization, psychological abnormality, social learning, gender conflict view, sexual motivation.